In the 2010s, a rough survey of East Indians in Mumbai revealed that there were 2.5 lakh in the city, 80,000 in Vasai and 12,000 in Thane. Why, one might ask, would a Christian community living on India’s west coast call itself East Indian?

The name "Mumbai" is believed to derive from Mumba or Maha-Amba, the name of the goddess Mumba Devi. Mumba Devi is believed to be an incarnation of the goddess Parvati, the consort of Lord Shiva, who is considered the primordial energy (Shakti) behind the universe's creation and the life force that sustains it. The Kolis regard Mumba Devi as their patron deity, and they pray to her before venturing out to sea.The first temple dedicated to Mumba Devi is believed to have been founded by a Koli fisherwoman named Munga, after whom the shrine, Mungachi Amba, was named.

Banganga Tank is located on the western fringes of Malabar Hill, close to Raj Bhawan. The neighborhood around Banganga Tank is the oldest continuously inhabited region in Bombay, a site of great spiritual significance to Hindus. For centuries, Hindus have made a pilgrimage to the Walkeshwar Temple and the now-destroyed Shri Gundi stone at Malabar Point, which gave sanctity to the hill from a very early age.

By the mid-19th century CE, Mazagaon and its surrounding areas, such as Byculla and Parel, saw the rise of multiple textile mills. This contributed to the industrial growth of Mumbai and attracted migrants from diverse ethnicities and geographies, both within India and abroad. Mazagaon’s numerous dargahs, temples, churches, and agiaries (fire temples) are a result of the complex interplay of colonial-era policies and patterns of human migration over many centuries.

The Bombay East Indians’ syncretic culture is also visible in their celebration of Aagera (sometimes spelt agera), a harvest festival for the Kharif crop held at the end of the monsoon season. In agrarian societies, the end of the harvest season brings relief and joy, as successful harvests provide food security in the coming months. The festival’s name is derived from the Latin word ager, meaning a field or tract of cultivable land, which is also the root of the word agriculture.

Food plays a fundamental role in all human cultures. It is not just a means of sustenance but also serves as a means of expressing oneself, connecting with others, and preserving the cultural history of a region or community. It is a way of life that is passed down through generations, an intangible heritage. Drawing from these historical and cultural roots, the food serves as a recollection of bygone eras, and simultaneously, the related cooking methods and social conventions provide invaluable insight into the values and material conditions of the people making it.

In coastal Maharashtra, Gauri is worshipped as a singular goddess known as Jyeshtha Gauri (jyestha meaning the elder one or the senior). In the interior parts of Maharashtra, in the Deccan, Gauri is worshipped together with Kanistha Gauri (kanistha meaning the younger one or junior), popularly known as Mahalakshmi. Jyeshtha Gauri is typically worshipped as a metal facemask attached to an anthropomorphic body adorned with traditional Koli attire and jewelry. A new Nauvari saree, a type of saree worn by Koli women, is offered to the Goddess and is changed every year.

The Bakhar mentions Manori as one of the five villages that made up ‘Thikan Uttan’ under the administration of an officer called Sindhe Sheshvanshi. In fact, Manori is one of the few places whose name has remained unchanged since the time. The traditional expanse of Manori Koliwada stretches from Sumlai Talav in the north, Manori jetty to the south, the open sea to the west, and Manori creek to the east. It is home predominantly to the Koli community, comprised of Hindu and Christian Kolis, along with a small population of Bhandari and Kunbi communities.

In India, the coconut palm holds significant cultural, economic, and symbolic value and is deeply connected to the livelihoods and cultural traditions of coastal communities. Due to its ability to survive at sea while sustaining life within its hard shell, the coconut palm is often associated with the kalpavriksha (tree of life or wish-fulfilling divine tree), which emerged from the primal waters during the Samudra Manthana (Churning of the Ocean of Milk), a celestial tug-of-war contest between the devas (gods) and the asuras (evil demigods), described in in the Vishnu Purana.

Krishna Janmashtami celebrates the janma (divine birth) of Sri Krishna on the eighth day (ashtami) of the Krishna Paksha (dark fortnight) in the month of Bhadrapada according to the Hindu lunar calendar, corresponding to August–September in the Gregorian calendar. Versova Koliwada, a historic fishing village in Mumbai, comes alive during Krishna Janmashtami, merging traditional Hindu rituals with the local culture of the Koli community, which has its own distinct traditions and customs.

In this conversation with independent researcher Anurag Shinde, Dr Kurush Dalal presents the city and its people through the eyes of someone who has keenly observed Bombay and later, Mumbai, for most of his life—and through the many lenses of a resident, a teacher, an archaeologist, a historian and a culinary anthropologist.

Versova is among Mumbai’s oldest Koliwadas (fishing villages), strategically located at the confluence of Malad Creek and the Arabian Sea. As with other Koliwadas, the culture of Versova is deeply intertwined with maritime history. The Kolis are among the earliest inhabitants of the islands of Mumbai. They are expert seamen and rely on fishing as their main source of income. The Versova Koli Seafood Festival is organized in Versova village annually. It takes place over three days in January, which is a low season for fishing operations, making it the ideal time to organize community events. Encouraged by the festival's success, similar Koli seafood festivals also take place in Juhu, Worli, Mahim, and Sasoon Dock, among other places in Mumbai.

Despite the urbanization of much of the surrounding area, Khar Danda has retained its identity as a fishing village. The quaint village is home to the Koli community, who rely on fishing and related activities for their livelihood. From Danda dhakka (dock), hundreds of fishing boats venture out to sea at dawn. After a few hours, the boats return and offload the catch. Packed in ice, the catch is transported to wholesale markets, where it is sorted and distributed to fish vendors. The damaged and unsold fish are bought by Koli women to make dried fish, which is a valuable source of income for many Koli families. Though the supply is highly variable and seasonal, it is estimated that 10–20 percent of the total catch is dried.

Situated at the tip of a plush locality of Worli in Mumbai is a gaothan or an urban village, known as the Worli Koliwada, which is home to the Indigenous fishing community of Mumbai, the Kolis and the East Indians. The Worli Koliwada is rich with cultural, historical, and social significance.

Good Friday, observed on the Friday before Easter Sunday, attracts numerous devotees to Mount Mary Basilica, both from the local community and visitors. Good Friday is marked by mourning, reflection, and devotion as Catholics remember the suffering and sacrifice of Jesus Christ for humanity’s salvation. The day is considered ‘good’ because it is believed to be the day when Jesus Christ, through his sacrificial death on the cross, redeemed humanity from sin and opened the way to salvation and eternal life. The term ‘good’ in this context likely originates from an older meaning of the word, which meant ‘holy’ or ‘pious’.

Kolis fish in the creeks and mangroves along Mumbai’s coastline. In shallow intertidal zones, they rely on fixed gillnets, cast nets, and hand-held nets to trap fish that get caught during high tide. Koli men devote their spare time to repairing their fishing nets. Fishing nets require regular maintenance and repair to keep them in good condition. It is a task of utmost importance to ensure broken nets are ready as quickly as possible.

Situated in the Andheri suburb of Mumbai, Versova Koliwada is one of the city’s prominent Koliwadas. The earliest reference to Versova dates back to the 12th century chronicle named Mahikavatichi Bakhar, which mentions a village named Yesav[1] (येसाव) on the west coast of Salsette island. The term ‘Versova’ appears to be derived from the Prakrit and later Marathi word Visava which means respite. Locals still refer to their Koliwada as Vesave (वेसावे), with the surname ‘Vesavkar’ being common in the area. Mumbai has long been renowned for its deep natural harbour, and this holds true for the many villages that dot its coast, which boast deep waters safe for heavy cargo boats. Strategically positioned at the mouth of the Versova Creek, a deep inlet of the sea into the mainland, Versova served as a resting and restocking station for merchant ships traversing the west coast of India for centuries.

The completion of the Mahim Causeway in 1846 brought about significant changes in the local demographic setup for the Mahim Kolis. Despite its current appearance at a similar level to the surrounding neighbourhood of Mahim, the causeway was actually built at a slight elevation from the adjoining area, with a slope on the sea-facing side. The Kolis of Mahim adopted the term ‘sulup’ from their vocabulary to describe this slope, and the settlement that emerged between the sea and the causeway became known and is still referred to as Sulup. Two other areas where the Mahim Kolis were and still are concentrated are the Mori Road and the Kapad Bazaar area, the latter being the main marketplace of the Mahim Koliwada.

Humans depend on nature for their survival. As a result, cultures, value systems, and behaviours are often a result of the environment and habitat one resides in. All over the world, indigenous communities have adapted to their natural environments over time. Indigenous populations residing in these spaces revere them and conserve the ecosystem through sustainable practices, as seen in farming and fishing.

The Madh Koliwada of Madh is situated on the south side of the present-day peninsula that was once an island off the west coast of Sashti. The British-era map of Mumbai refers to it as Mhar. It is strategically located, with the open sea to its west and the creek to its east, which gave the local Kolis plenty of area to fish in. It is a considerably large Koliwada divided into numerous padas or gaons and gallis; like Dongar Pada, Vatar Galli, Madhla Pada, Bhotkar Galli, Darya Galli, Vandre Galli, Nava Nagar, Navpada, Lochar Gaon, Paat Wadi, Dhondi Pada, Oscar Wadi, Christian Galli, Marathi Aali, etc.

Malvani Gaon (or Malvani Village) is located in Malad and also finds mention in the Mahikavatichi Bakhar by the name of Malvan, whose Sanskritised name must have been Mallavana, or forest of malla trees. The malla tree (Bauhinia racemosa), is also known as apta in Marathi, and the region of Malvani must have been wooded with these trees, possibly giving the place its name. Malvani is comprised of Hindu and Christian Kolis, also known as East Indians, and Bhandaris. The village was and is still ensconced between Rathodi village to its west, Charkop village to its north, Marve to its east, and Dharavali village to its south. It was one of the most important villages in this part of Mumbai, and the villages of Kharodi and Rathodi are still considered part of Malvani division in terms of administration.

The word Dharavi conjures up images of vast sprawls of unorganized housing, with the notorious title of the largest slum in Asia. However, like everywhere, Dharavi has more than meets the eye. On a casual stroll from one of the entry points of the settlement, one stumbles across the quaint Koliwada of Dharavi. Visually distinct from the other areas of the Dharavi, this part of modern Dharavi was once the aboriginal fishing village on the banks of the Mithi River and Mahim Creek, which gave its name to the entire locality that grew around it.

Eksar is home to the Agri community whose traditional occupation was farming, and managing salt pans. It was originally a large village whose original boundaries stretched from the Manori creek in the west to Dahisar in the north, Ravalpada and Devipada in the east, and Vazira to the south. This original expanse of Eksar is still preserved in the administrative records, wherein all the places mentioned prior administratively still fall under mauje Eksar. The village of Eksar is traditionally divided into five neighbourhoods viz. Talepakhadi, Mhatarpakhadi, Dattapada, and Koliwadi. The original families who made up Eksar Gaothan, and who continue to reside in it, are the Mhatre, Patil, and Thakur.

The Vazira Koliwada is situated at the intersection of Lokmanya Tilak Road and Linking Road on the western side of the Borivali suburb of Mumbai. It is one of the indigenous Koliwadas in the Borivali region. While neighbouring Eksar and Shimpoli gaothans are mentioned in the Mahikavatichi Bakhar, Vazira finds no mention in this work or in any other old documents related to the city. According to a local resident, Yavan Vaity, Vazira has been in existence for at least the past century, as per accounts passed down by village elders. The name Vazira is peculiar compared to other Koliwadas, and the current inhabitants have no information on its etymological origins.

The Mahikavatichi Bakhar, the oldest medieval chronicle of Mumbai dating back to the 13th-14th centuries CE, mentions Mulund as one of the villages under the jurisdiction of an administrator named Harbaji. This firmly establishes the historicity of Mulund as being at least six to seven centuries old. The original boundary of Gavanpada Koliwada was marked by the Gavan River to the north, Mulund Station to the west, and numerous creeks that demarcated its eastern and southern frontiers. The oldest families inhabiting the Gavanpada Koliwada are the Vaity, Patil, Bhoir, and Keni. The families of Gavanpada traditionally established marital ties with Koli families from the Koliwadas of Bhandup, Bhivandi, Kalyan, Sion, Nanepada, and Navgharpada.

Bhandup is one of the most historically relevant places in the city of Mumbai. The Shilaharas of Thane, who ruled this region from the 10th- 12th centuries CE, are known to have built a Rajpath, or royal road, that passed through Bhandup, and connected their capital to places on the eastern seaboard of Mumbai. A copper plate inscription mentioning Bhandup was found in 1835 in a field in Nahur. The inscription dates back to the reign of the Northern Shilahara King Chhittarajadev, who ruled from 1022-1035 CE.

The suburb of Kandivali is one of the oldest neighbourhoods in Mumbai, referred to as Kandhavli in the Mahikavatichi Bakhar, the city’s oldest chronicle dating back to the 13th-14th century AD. Even today, the coastline near the Manori creek in Kandhavli is richly covered with mangroves, bordering the native hamlet of Charkop, inhabited by the Koli and Bhandari communities, who are among the original settlers of Kandivali.

Mumbai is one of the most peculiar cities in the world and is home to a wide range of natural ecosystems and biodiversity, from the open seas, creeks, and rivers to dense jungles. The Sanjay Gandhi National Park, of which Aarey Forest forms a part, is the largest protected forest within a city anywhere in the world. Aarey is home to numerous Adivasi tribes, such as the Kolis, who have settled in the coastal terrains of the city. Several Adivasi communities have made their homes in various padas or hamlets in these forests, situated in the central region of Mumbai’s contemporary urban landscape, for thousands of years and continue to do so.

The name Kandarpada might be derived from the abundant mangrove forests that once surrounded this locality. One of the Marathi words for mangrove is kandar, which may have given this gaothan, or village, its name. It is a gaothan home to the Agri, Pachkalshi and Christian Koli communities as well as members of the adivasi community. The traditional boundaries of the Kandarpada gaothan extend from Eksar in the south to Manori Creek in the west and the Dahisar River in the east and the north.

If you have lived in Mumbai long enough, it is hard not to have come across East Indian cuisine, which, over time, has adapted itself to reflect a mixture of Portuguese, British and Maharashtrian culinary influences. Quintessential to the aroma and taste of East Indian cuisine is a potent masala prepared from a variety of exotic spices, known colloquially as bottle masala. The name derives from the empty beer bottles in which the masala was packed and stored to keep them airtight and fresh. The masala is a staple in East Indian community kitchens and is used in the preparation of various dishes.

The antiquity of Erangal is evinced from certain archaeological remains and its mention in the early medieval texts of the region. One such text is the Mahikavatichi Bakhar, a 12th century chronicle detailing the administrative setup of the contemporary Sashthi or Salcette island. The text refers to Erangal as ‘Yergan’, which was assigned to an administrator named ‘Singhe Sheshvanshi’.

The modern-day Gaothan of Babhai is nestled between Lokmanya Tilak Road and Chandavarkar Road, commanding attention with its distinctive blend of traditional dwellings amidst the backdrop of modern buildings and high rises. It stands as an urban village inhabited by the Pachkalshi or the Somvanshi Kshatriya Pathare community, representing one of the rare enclaves of this community within Mumbai.

For a person living in Mumbai, the term Koli often evokes images of the sea, fishes, and fisherwomen. However, the term Koli is an umbrella term encompassing various communities that reside in the hinterlands and are not necessarily involved in fishing occupations.The Kolis are an indigenous group inhabiting parts of Gujarat, Northern Konkan, the Sahyadris, the Deccan, and other regions of the country. The term ‘indigenous peoples’ can simply be understood as natives of the land who have inhabited the region since time immemorial.

Mazagon’s proximity to the sea has historically made it an important area for trade, shipping, and naval activities. Mazagon is home to the historic Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDL), one of India's leading shipyards, and its Koliwada is among the oldest in Mumbai. Apart from the shipbuilding industry, Mazagon is an important transport hub, which facilitates the movement of workers and migrants. It is home to a mix of communities, including Parsis, Muslims, East Indian Catholics, and others, contributing to its cosmopolitan mood.

Saraswati Narsu Nakhva lives at her ancestral home in Mazagaon Koliwada, her native village. ‘The house must be a hundred years old,’ she says. Saraswati, now 85 years old, has spent her entire life at this address. Her community, the Kolis, has lived in Mumbai for centuries, long before Europeans arrived. ‘We didn’t migrate here, unlike others. We are mulniwasi (Indigenous inhabitants) of Mumbai,’ she says, asserting immense pride in her ancestry.

Certain communities in the metropolis – such as the Kolis and the East Indians, for instance – consider themselves its original inhabitants and indigenous to the city. The implications of the term indigeneity, though, do call for a deeper investigation for it has sometimes been used to differentiate between insiders and outsiders, us and them.

Inaugurated in 1718, St. Thomas Cathedral is the first Anglican church in Bombay (Mumbai), established to provide church services to the earliest British settlers from the East India Company. The church was named in honor of St. Thomas Apostle, one of the 12 disciples of Jesus Christ and the Apostle of India. Situated opposite Horniman Circle Garden, this historic and beautiful place of worship is nearly lost among the hustle and bustle of its surroundings.

The Portuguese first set foot on the Indian subcontinent in 1498, with Vasco da Gama's arrival at Calicut. In 1508, the Portuguese explorer Francisco de Almeida claimed the seven islands of Mumbai as part of the Portuguese Empire. In 1534, the Sultan of Gujarat officially ceded the islands to the Portuguese through the Treaty of Bassein. With their overwhelming naval and military superiority, the Portuguese monopolized trade in spices, silk, and other valuable commodities in India and controlled the maritime trade routes in the Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, and Indian Ocean.

Kandivli was surrounded by forests and rice fields in the early 19th century CE, and the British authorities designated the villages in this region as Notified Areas. The late 19th century CE witnessed the construction of the Western Railway line, splitting Kandivli into East and West and initiating its urban transformation. The British embarked on extensive land reclamation projects in Mumbai to expand infrastructure and residential land.

Versova Koliwada's seaside location, the practical requirements of a fishing lifestyle, and the indigenous culture of the Koli community all influence its vernacular architecture and urban layout.The narrow, winding lanes lead right to Versova Beach, where fishing activities take place throughout the day. Houses are typically compact, with the need to make the best use of the available space. Many residences are built on an elevated platform or plinth to prevent flooding, which is prevalent during the monsoon season.

The Bhalia family, like most Koli families living in Khar Danda, relies on fishing as their primary source of income. Rakesh Bhalia, a Gujarati Koli born and raised in Khar Danda, has been a fisherman for 35 years. His weathered hands and tanned skin tell a story of hard work and determination. His 26-year-old son, Rahul, has inherited the family tradition, learning the tricks of the trade from his father and other experienced fishermen in the community.

Ballard Estate is one of the most coveted commercial areas in Mumbai, with broad, tree-lined thoroughfares and airy, spacious offices. Land reclamation for Ballard Estate started in 1904 using filling material excavated during the laying out of Alexandra Docks. Bombay Port Trust commissioned George Wittet with the task of developing Ballard Estate. As consulting architect, Wittet adopted the Baroque Revival style, which was in vogue in England during the reign of King Edward VII (r. 1901-10).

Horniman Circle precinct in the Fort area of Mumbai surrounds itself with many old and vintage structures, including the Asiatic Society of Bombay, St Thomas Cathedral, Indian Navy's Western Command Headquarters (where Manor House once stood during the Portuguese era), etc. In its early history, Horniman Circle was called as Bombay Green, from where cotton and opium trade took place. Post-independence, it got renamed to Horniman Circle, taking its name from BG Horniman, a British journalist and editor of Bombay Chronicle, a daily started by Sir Pherozeshah Mehta.

Mumbai's renowned Victoria Garden

Veermata Jijabai Bhonsle Udyan, formerly known as Victoria Gardens, was founded to commemorate Queen Victoria. It was earlier established as a botanical garden by the Agri Horticultural Society of Western India in a large plot at Sewri in 1835 but was later shifted to Mount Estate, Byculla, in 1861. The garden was opened to the public in 1862 by Lady Frere, wife of Sir Bartle Frere, who was the Governor of Bombay during the 1860s.

The Koli traditions incorporate certain rituals and practices that are unique to their culture. For example, the Holika dahan of Kolis takes place on trayodashi tithi (the 13th day of the lunar month in the Hindu calendar), two nights prior to phalgun purnima, instead of one night prior, which is the tradition followed in the rest of the country. Although Holika is an antagonist in the story of Prahlada, she is worshipped as a Mother Goddess by Kolis, who lovingly calls her Haul Mata (mother).

The era after 1920s in Bombay is recognized by the advent of Art Deco which spread across the city and influenced every aspect of the city life. Art Deco derived its name from a World Fair held in Paris in 1925, called as ‘Exponential Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes’. It was a combination of both traditional and modern styles, introducing new forms of designs in Bombay’s architecture. The Indian Institute of Architects (IIA) played a significant role in expanding the Art Deco movement in India, as it held the first architectural exhibition called as the ‘Ideal Home Exhibition’ in the Town Hall in November 1937, introducing the audiences to the world of Art Deco. Mumbai became a hub of Art Deco and was finally conferred with the UNESCO World Heritage status for the Art Deco buildings around the Oval Maidan in Churchgate in 2016, cementing the legacy of Bombay’s architecture.

The Flora Fountain, one of the historical water fountains of Mumbai, was installed in 1869 at the intersection of Dadabhai Naoroji Road, Mahatma Gandhi Road, and Veer Nariman Road. It was designed and executed entirely in England and transported via ship to India. The fountain is named after Flora, the Roman goddess of flowers and the season of spring. The statue of the goddess stands at the highest level of the fountain.

Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (also known as Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai) is India's richest municipal corporation and responsible for developing the civic infrastructure of the city and tax collection. It was established with the passing of the Bombay Municipal Corporation Act in 1888. The headquarters are based at the BMC building, which also feature (along with the Gateway of India) on the seal of the corporation.