In this interview, historian Dr Pushkar Sohoni delves into the evolution and development of Indian temple architecture. In the conversation with Meenakshi Vashisth, Curator and Project Lead of the Temples of India project, Dr Sohoni expresses his view on the concept of sacred geometry in temple design, the integration of sacred geography and natural elements in building these sacred spaces, and technological interventions influencing the development over time.

Bikaner, Rajasthan

The Morkhana village, also called as Morkhiyana, is home to an Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) protected temple dedicated to Suswani Ma. The Goddess is believed to be a kuldevi (family deity) of the Surana clan. The original temple of Suswani Mata dates back to the twelfth century CE construction, undergoing restoration and reconstruction multiple times since its inception. Presently, the temple comprises only the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum), with a later added mandapa (closed hall), courtyard, and rest houses.

In the insightful interview, Dr Savita Kumari delves into the philosophy behind the evolution and development of the sacred space in the Indian subcontinent. With Meenakshi Vashisth, Project Head of Temples of India, Dr Kumari discusses a range of topics, from the distinct regional styles, religious philosophy and various influences on the development of the architectural layouts of temples. She also elaborates on sculptural narratives and iconographic depictions that convey religious myths and philosophical concepts, enriching the spiritual experience of worshippers.

Dausa, Rajasthan

The Harshatmata Temple in Abhaneri, situated off the Delhi-Jaipur highway—six kilometres from the Bandikui railway station—in the Dausa district of Rajasthan, dates back to the 9th century CE. The temple was built under the reign of the Shakambhari Chahamanas, who were the feudatories of the Gurjara-Pratiharas. The temple stands as an example of the Maha-Maru style architecture in the region. The temple is dedicated to the worship of Harshat Mata, or Harasiddhi Devi who is considered the ishta (main or presiding deity) of Abhaneri.

Jhalawar, Rajasthan

Situated on the banks of the Chandrabhaga River in the heart of Jhalawar district, Rajasthan, lie the ancient temples of Chandravati, also known as Chandrabhaga, at Jhalarpatan. Founded by Jhala Jalim Singh in 1789 CE, the city of Jhalawar, formerly known as Chandravati, has seen the rise and fall of empires, yet its sacred temples remain significant symbols of architectural and spiritual heritage. Within the temple complex, the compound under the Jaipur Circle of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) houses five temples in varying states of preservation. The Sitaleshwar Temple, dedicated to Shiva, is the most prominent, accompanied by two other Shiva temples, a Vishnu Temple, and a temple dedicated to Mahishasuramardini. A modest four-pillared mandapa (pillared hall), with a Ganesha figure at the centre, is also part of the complex.

Bikaner, Rajasthan

The Seth Bhandasar Jain Temple is situated in Bikaner, Rajasthan, within the older part of the walled city. It resides amidst one of the busiest areas of the city, Bada Bazaar, adjacent to another famous temple of Bikaner, the Lakshmi Nath Temple. Bhandasar Temple is dedicated to the fifth tirthankara (spiritual teacher), Sumatinath, and is affiliated to the Shvetambara Jain tradition.

The history of temple architecture begins with caves, trees, and other sites of worship, which were later enclosed in structures to house divinity as anthropomorphic forms of worship became prevalent. Temple morphology evolved differently across various regions of the subcontinent in response to available materials, crafts traditions, and worship practices.

In this segment of the interview, Dr Pushkar Sohoni interviews Dr Mankodi on his journey and the influences that shaped his passion for Indian art and architecture. He elaborates on how the temple architecture and iconographic styles reflect the cultural and historical contexts of their regions rather than just their dynastic affiliations. Additionally, he discusses the role of interdisciplinary approaches in enhancing our understanding of temple architecture and the importance of preserving historical information amidst modern jirnoddhara (restoration) activities.

In this segment of the interview, Dr Kirit Mankodi explores the interplay between myth, symbolism, and temple architecture in India, shedding light on how these elements intertwine to tell deeper cultural and historical narratives. While discussing his book To What God Shall We Render Homage, he highlights how myths embedded in temple structures reflect deeper mythological, cultural and historical narratives. He provides examples of how these narratives are preserved and expressed through temple art.

In this part, Dr Kirit Mankodi addresses the critical issue of antiquity theft and illicit art trafficking, sharing his experiences and insights into efforts to reclaim stolen cultural heritage. He discusses the major challenges and ethical concerns associated with the preservation and protection of India's artistic heritage. Highlights the complexities of dealing with illicit art trafficking and the impact of urbanization on built heritage.

Banswara, Rajasthan

A group of about twelve temples is located in the small village of Arthuna in the Garhi tehsil of the Banswara district of Rajasthan. It is nestled in the historical region of Vagada, and is one of the forested zones with rich flora and fauna. Several of the temples, for instance, the Hanuman Garhi Temple complex, Mandaleshwar Temple, Someshwar Mahadev Temple and Jain Temple, among a few others are large temple complexes, built in the panchayatana system, where the main temple is surrounded by four subsidiary shrines. Arthuna mainly flourished as the capital of the Paramaras of Vagada, a branch of the imperial Paramaras of Malwa. As evident from the eleventh-twelfth century inscriptions, Paramara rulers Chamundaraja and Vijayraja, were instrumental in patronizing the temples in Arthuna.

Padma Bhushan awardee Prof Madhusudhan Amilal Dhaky (31.7.1927–29.7.2016) was one of the most prolific scholars in the field of Indian temple architecture. His extensive work on decoding and interpreting the architectural details of temples with a focus on structural-stylistic analysis is groundbreaking. His voluminous writing in three different languages—English, Gujarati, and Hindi—covers different facets of temple forms and imagery. Through his work, Dhaky has propounded the usage of classical terminology from the Vaastu Shastra texts. Dhaky was a polymath who carried out immense work on Jain literature, beadwork from Kutch, Indian classical music and several others.

Professor Michael W Meister is the W Norman Brown Professor of South Asia Studies at the Department of History of Art and South Asia Studies at the University of Pennsylvania. He has been associated with the University of Pennsylvania since 1976. Prof Meister has extensively researched the visual and material culture of South Asia, with a focus on temple morphology, stylistic patterns, and architectural vocabularies. His extensive body of work has significantly enriched the study of Indian temple art and architecture. His publications cover various regional styles, historical periods, and theoretical perspectives, offering comprehensive insight into the architectural and cultural contexts of Indian temples.

Tonk, Rajasthan

The Bisaldeo Temple in the Tonk district of Rajasthan is a 12th-century CE temple that is popularly revered as the Gokarneshwara (Gokarnesvara) Mahadev in and around the region. Located near the Bisalpur dam on the Banas river, 150 km from Jaipur, the courtyard of the temple is partly submerged in the river water most of time around the year.

Bhilwara, Rajasthan

The Bijolia group of temples, located in the Bhilwara district of Rajasthan, represents a significant chapter in the region's rich architectural heritage. Located in the quaint town of Bijolia, the complex, protected under the Jaipur Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), stands as a timeless marvel amidst the Uparmal plateau, formerly known as Vindhyavali. The complex includes three temples and a kund (water tank). The group of temples is much renowned for the first one the Mahakal Temple, also popularly called the Bijoliyan Mahadeva Temple. The other two temples are the Hazareshwar Temple and Undeshwar Temple. The serene Mandakini Kund adds to the spiritual ambience of this historical site.

Kota, Rajasthan

Protected under the Jaipur Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), the Shiva Temple at Charchoma Maliya is one of the oldest surviving temples in Rajasthan. It has gone several modifications over the period of time up till 19th century CE. The garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum with a flat roofed antarala (vestibule) belong to the late Gupta period (about 7th century CE) are the oldest surviving architectural features of the temple

Alwar, Rajasthan

The Sariska Tiger Reserve in the Alwar district of Rajasthan is home to several temples that are more than 1000 years old. A magnificent collection of architectural designs spread over two kilometres, these temples are known as the Neelkanth Mahadev group of temples, named after one of its better-preserved temples from the complex. This module focuses on the architectural remains of the Neelkanth Mahadev group of temples with special reference to the Neelkanth Mahadev Temple. A triple-shrine temple probably dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, and Devi, the temple is an excellent example of temple architecture prevalent during the 10th century CE.

Context and Manifestations: A select case study from North India

The Hindu temple is one of the most significant tangible expressions of the highly evolved architectural knowledge system and can be seen throughout the nation. From the 5th to the mid-13th century CE, temple-building activities were carried out on a massive scale and in various styles, each rooted in its regional traditions but maintaining the essence of form and meaning. The temple building embodies the entire cosmos in its structure and is the abode of God. All three realms of the universe are symbolically represented through the plethora of imagery on the temple walls and doorways.

Sikar, Rajasthan

Located 14km from the district headquarters and perched atop the Harsha Hill in the Sikar district of Rajasthan, the Harshnath Temple Complex is a protected site under the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). The complex comprises many architectural remnants from the 10th to 18th century CE. At the heart of the complex, lies the historical Harshnath Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva.

In the process of conserving cultural heritage, there are three main phases highlighted in The Burra Charter: the Australia ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance (2013). The first is understanding the significance of heritage, the second is developing a policy for it, and the third is managing the heritage site according to the policy. It is crucial to have a holistic understanding of the significance of heritage sites. Data collection on cultural heritage sites is based on various primary and secondary documentation techniques and sources.

Chittorgarh, Rajasthan

The village of Baroli, also known as Badoli near Rawatbhata, is home to nine ancient temples built around the 10th to 11th centuries CE. The Baroli group of temples, designated a monument of national significance under the Jodhpur Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), encompasses eight of these nine temples, standing as a testament to the exquisite artistry and architectural prowess of the Pratihara style. The temples are dedicated to various deities; Shiva who is represented in three temples, Vishnu in his reclining Sheshashayi and Vamana form, Mahishasuramardini who is deified in two temples, one of which is outside the complex walls, and Ganesha.

Chittorgarh, Rajasthan

The scenic location of the Menal Valley in Rajasthan is home to exquisite temples and monasteries built over four hundred years, ranging from as early as the eighth century up to the fourteenth century CE. Apart from the two large temples, Mahanaleshwar and Suhaveshwar, there are about four to five smaller temples, two monasteries, and several architectural fragments strewn within the premises of the complex.

Bhilwara, Rajasthan

The Kaner-ki-Putli Temple is a Shiva temple located in the picturesque Khadirpur locality of Bijolia, Rajasthan. The protected heritage site under the Jaipur Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), preserves its cultural legacy in the wild within the Vindhya ranges. The secluded temple is surrounded by Bijolia stone mines all around it. The temple is oriented towards the west and its current structure includes a garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) and an antarala (antechamber), while the mandapa (pillared hall) lies in ruins. The temple features intricate vedibandha (basal mouldings) and a finely carved jangha (wall), characteristic of the 12th century CE architectural style