The Temple Doorway

Context and Manifestations: A select case study from North India

By Dr Savita Kumari

The highly evolved architectural tradition of India is more than 5000 years old, as evidenced by the excellent town planning seen across the Harappan sites, many of which are yet to be unearthed. Since then, the country has developed many forms of building traditions both in the sacred and secular spheres. In fact, Indian building traditions played a significant role in shaping architectural traditions across Southeast Asia. For instance, the World Heritage Sites of Borobudur and Prambanan in Indonesia and Angkor Wat in Cambodia testify to how the Indian knowledge system and cultural ethos resonated with neighbouring countries. The ancient Indian treatises were the guiding star in developing rich building traditions based on scientific principles, technological advancement, and philosophical tenets.

The Hindu temple is one of the most significant tangible expressions of the highly evolved architectural knowledge system and can be seen throughout the nation. From the 5th to the mid-13th century CE, temple-building activities were carried out on a massive scale and in various styles, each rooted in its regional traditions but maintaining the essence of form and meaning. The temple building embodies the entire cosmos in its structure and is the abode of God. All three realms of the universe are symbolically represented through the plethora of imagery on the temple walls and doorways. While performing various rituals and prescribed movements within the temple complex, the devotee ultimately reaches to the inner chamber of the divine. To be one with the divine, the pilgrim crosses the threshold of the doorway of the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) and transcends the physical to be in the spiritual realm of the divine. Thus, the temple doorway becomes crucial in the overall design of the temple building, with special emphasis given in the Shilpa text for its execution and ornamentation. Even during the early period of temple building, the doorway was treated meticulously. This article attempts to map the development of temple doorways, a significant component in temple building that brings the devotee closer to the ultimate goal, moksha (salvation).

The Temple Doorway

The doorway of the garbhagriha is one of the most significant parts of a temple building, as it leads the devotee to the divinity for whose darshana (paying homage), the devotee has undertaken the journey to the temple complex. Shilpa texts are replete with prescriptions regarding the measurement and ornamentation of the doorway, which frames the main image in the sanctum. According to the Brihat Samhita, the earliest known text mentioning temple proportions and sites, ‘Its (temple) door is one-fourth of the sanctum sanctorum in width and twice as high. The side frame of the door has a width of a quarter of its height; similarly, the threshold and the upper block. The thickness of the frame is equal to a fourth of its breadth. A door consisting of three, five, seven or nine frames is highly commended. Lower down up to a height of one-fourth of the doorpost, two images of door-keepers must be kept; the remaining space being ornamented with the carvings of auspicious birds, Bilwa trees, swasthika figures, pitchers, couples, foliage, creepers and Siva’s hosts. The idol with its pedestal ought to be as high as the door diminished by an eighth of these, the idol being of two parts and the pedestal one.’[1] This detailed description highlights the importance of proportion and symbolic ornamentation in the design of the temple doorway, emphasizing its role as a sacred threshold.

As a general rule, the height of the door was prescribed to be twice its width, though alternatives were possible.[2] Based on proportions of width and height, the Mayamatam[3] suggests the possibility of 25 types of measurements for constructing doors for various purposes. Another intriguing aspect mentioned in the text is the sound that the door panels should make when opening and closing. It mentions that if a kavata (door panel) makes the sound of a drum, elephant, lion, veena (string instrument), or venu (flute), such doors are auspicious. However, if the sound resembles howling, yelling or any other kind of noise, such doors are considered inauspicious.[4] Multiple verses emphasize that it would be disadvantageous for the patron if the proportions prescribed in the texts are not adhered to. The Manasara, another ancient Sanskrit treatise on Indian architecture and design, provides detailed formulas for the construction of various kinds of doors, whether for temple buildings or residential quarters, in chapters 38 and 39. It mentions that if the doors are constructed according to the location and measurements specified in the text, it would bring prosperity to the patron. However, if due to ignorance, proper ornamentation and measurements are not taken into account, such constructions would ruin all prosperity.[5] Shilpa texts asserts the importance of perfection in construction methods and, by pointing to the disadvantages of inferior construction, caution for both the patron and the architect. This emphasis on precision has ensured the strength of the temple buildings, allowing them to stand for hundreds of years across the Indian subcontinent, serving as a testament to the sophisticated architectural tradition that existed in India.

The ornamentation of the doorway holds special significance as its iconographic program is intricately linked to the principal deity enshrined in the garbhagriha. Elaborate carvings adorn the sill, jambs, and lintel of the doorway. A notable feature is the lalatabimba (lintel) on top, which carries a symbol or image of the presiding deity of the temple. The iconography of the main deity is also reflected in the iconography of the dvarapala (door guardians), carved at the base of the door jambs. Sometimes, instead of the specific deity to whom the temple is dedicated, the image of Goddess Lakshmi, bathed by elephants, is carved. In this form, as described by Stella Kramrisch, she performs the initiatory function, ‘Lakshmi is Varuni, the energy and wealth of the waters’.[1] The representation of river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, is another significant feature of a Hindu temple doorway. Their presence symbolizes the purification of the devotee from all flaws. In the Gupta temples (4th to 6th centuries CE), the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna generally occupied the right and left side of the lintel, indicating their descent from the celestial realm. However, in later periods, these figures are often depicted on the sides of the threshold. Additionally, on the doorways, some of the other frequently seen life-affirming motifs and symbols of youth and abundance include patravalli (creepers), ganas (baby dwarfs or attendants), and mithunas (amourous couples).

While the tradition of temple construction dates back much further, with evidence found in inscriptions, literature, and stone carvings, the earliest architectural evidence of Hindu temple buildings dates to the Gupta period.

Early Beginnings: Gupta Temple Door Frame

The earliest known example of temple door frames can be found in Temple No. 17 at Sanchi, dating back to 400 CE (Image 1). Constructed during the Gupta period, this temple represents an early stage of temple building activity, reflected in both its plan and elevation. The only decoration in the temple is at its mandapa (pillared hall) pillars and door frame. The door frame exhibits a simple yet elegant design, featuring three shakhas (vertical bands or divisions). The innermost shakha is adorned with patravalli motifs, while the second shakha has a plain face with rosette decorations on the sides. The third shakha, modelled on the pillars of the mandapa, is the stambhashakha (pillared-shape band).

Kankali Devi Temple at Tigawa, Madhya Pradesh, represents the next stage of development, featuring door frames with panchashakha (five shakhas). M.A. Dhaky dates its construction to the first half of the 5th century CE. The door frame showcases intricate ornamentation: the first and third shakhas are adorned with patravalli motifs, while the second and fourth shakhas are predominantly plain, with occasional embellishments. The fifth shakha, resembling the stambhashakha, stands out as the most intriguing aspect. It supports images of river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, each riding on their respective vahanas (mounts), the mythical sea creatures: makara (crocodile) and kachhapa (tortoise). The river goddesses are portrayed under a custard apple tree and a mango tree in full blossom respectively. Notably, their posture resembles that of shalabhanjikas (a woman or yakshi next to, often holding, a tree branch). Kramrisch has described the depiction of the goddesses symbolizing the presence of the river purifying the devotee from all taints of his human state. ‘It is equivalent to a bath taken in the sacred waters’.[1] Additionally, the ghatapallava (pot with foliage) motif is carved on the stambhashakha, marking its significance as a characteristic feature of Gupta art that further evolved in the post-Gupta period.

A major development in terms of the ornamentation of Gupta doorways can be seen at the Udayagiri Caves of Madhya Pradesh. In Cave no. 4 at Udayagiri, the T-shaped door frame features four shakhas and a prominent over-door. While the first, third and fourth shakhas are decorated with patravalli designs, the second shakha is adorned with a rosette motif. Above the door, the second shakha has a broad kapota (projected cornice) decorated with five chandrashalikas (half-moon shaped small window-like openings). In the centre, a simhamukha (lion face) is depicted, flanked by two makaras on either side and, at the very end, gandharvas (celestial musicians) playing the veena. It is after the figures of gandharvas that the cave is also known as Veena Cave by the local community.

The most exquisite door frame from Udayagiri Caves can be seen at Cave no. 19. Here, the T-shaped door frame is decorated with three shakhas featuring new elements. The innermost shakha is decorated with patravalli motifs. The middle shakha is remarkable for mithuna figures depicted in a variety of postures and gestures. These figures alternate with stylized birds and makara depictions. Above this shakha, vyala (composite creature with the head of a tiger, elephant, bird, or other animal) riders are depicted, while below are images of river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna with attendants. Their importance is highlighted by chattras (umbrellas) over their heads. Standing in the tribhanga pose, Ganga holds a flower and Yamuna holds a pot. The lalatabimba image does not exist anymore. The third and outermost shakha is a stambhashakha which supports the shalabhanjika images at the top and pratiharas (guardian deities) below. The guardian deity on the right holds a staff and musala (mace) while the on the left carries floral offerings.

The door frame of the Shiva Temple at Bhumara, Madhya Pradesh, is composed of three shakhas. The standard Gupta T-shaped design for the door frame continues in this temple as well. Despite adhering to the conventional pattern, the ornamentation exhibits distinct features. The lower sections of the innermost and middle shakhas feature sculptures of river goddesses accompanied by their attendants. The attendants are shown holding an umbrella and a tray, respectively. Adjacent to the goddesses’ heads are depicted vidyadhara (celestial beings with wings) and maladhara (garland bearers) figures drifting on the clouds. This represents an innovative motif. The innermost shakha is conceived as a meander of semi-square and semi-circles filled with floral, vegetal, and geometrical patterns. The second shakha, known as a rupashakha (figure band), is represented with alternating male and female figures. Finely rendered srivriksha (palmette) motifs adorn the outermost shakha.

However, the most intriguing aspect of Bhumara Temple door jamb is the lalatabimba where the bust of a meditating Shiva is carved in high relief with broad shoulders and an oval face. Shiva is shown being worshipped by the vidyadharas carved on the uttaranga (top band) of the rupashakha. Above this band of vidyadharas, a kapotapali ((moulding resembling a parrot’s beak) moulding decorated with chandrashalikas further embellishes the composition. The spaces created by the T-frame of the bahyashakha (outer band) are adorned with mithuna figures. The apex of the door frame is adorned by tulasangrahas (joist-end moulding).

In terms of finesse and craftsmanship, the door frame of the Parvati Temple at Nachna, Madhya Pradesh) stands out. The temple is dated to the third quarter of the 5th century CE.[2] The four shakha doorway has exquisite carvings. The innermost shakha has a sumptuous patravalli design emerging from the naval of jambhakas (dwarfs) seated on cushioned seats. At the base of this shakha, Shaiva pratiharas can be seen standing in a graceful tribhanga (three breaks or bends in the body; neck, waist and knee) pose. Their faces with matted hair are framed by a plain oval halo. They carry trishula or tridents in their hand, an attribute of Shiva. It is usual for the door guardians to be shown with the attributes of the principal deity in the garbhagriha. The second shakha is a rupashakha where graceful mithuna figures can be seen on the jamb in a variety of loving postures. This shakha at the uttaranga has a rare depiction of Shiva Vinadhara (Shiva holding a veena) seated in the maharajalilasana pose with the Goddess Parvati. To the right of Mahadeva is a female chauri (fly-whisk) bearer in attendance. The divine couple is flanked by the supple-bodied vidyadhara couples coming from both sides to venerate Shiva and Shakti. River goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, on their respective vahanas, are carved at the base of this shakha. Attendant figures are shown carrying umbrellas. The third shakha, a stambhashakha, is adorned with ghatapallavas, a symbol of abundance and prosperity, at the base and capital. The stambhashakha supports a fine moulding of kapotapalika with decorations of chandrashalikas. The outermost shakha is a malashakha (garland band) depicting twisted garlands. This shakha supports the images of goddesses standing in a graceful tribhanga pose under a tree on a refined lotus pedestal with attendants.

The Vishnu Temple at Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh dating to the late 5th and early 6th century CE, exemplifies the pinnacle of door frame ornamentation during the Gupta period (Image 2). The panchashakha doorway is decorated with finely carved figurative and foliage ornamentation (Image 3). The innermost patravalli shakha emerges from the navels of the jambhaka (goblin), while the second shakha features a rosette design. Amorous mithuna figures alternating with the load bearers are carved with great sophistication in the third shakha. Moving upwards, the fourth stambhashakha has square, octagonal, and 16-sided sections above which rests a ghatapallava. Niches with figures of divinities adorn the middle square section. The outermost malashakha is embellished with a srivriksha (sacred tree) pattern and emerges from the ghattapallava carried by dwarfs at the bottom of the door frame. The lower section of the inner two shakhas are occupied by Vaishnava pratiharas with prabhamandala (aura) framing their faces. Graceful female figures adorn the third and fourth shakhas. The outer malashakha is crowned by the standing images of river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, framing the elaborate composition.

At the lalatabimba is the image of bhogasana Vishnu (Image 4) shown venerated by mala vidyadhara (garland holding celestial beings) couples occupying the third shakha of the lintel. In this rare image, Lord Vishnu is shown seated on the top of the coiled serpent Ananta, who spreads his hood over the great God as an umbrella. Goddess Lakshmi is depicted massaging his foot. Lakshmi symbolizes bhakti (devotion), ‘in which the devotee seeks refuge at the feet of Narayana. Further, Lakshmi (Goddess of Fortune) is considered to be the mediator between the devotee and the Lord.’[3] Notably, Lord Vishnu is flanked by two of his own incarnations: Narasimha and Vamana. The doorway of the Vishnu Temple exhibits perfection and a high degree of sophistication. In post-Gupta period, doorways became more complex in planning and execution but lacked the grace and refinement of the Gupta period.

Early Medieval Idiom at Osian, Rajasthan: Gurajara Pratihara Period

During the early medieval period, temple doorways continued to evolve, incorporating new elements and features. The Osian group of temples, constructed during the Pratihara period from the late 7th to early 9th centuries CE, provides examples of these developments. One of the early evolved temples at Osian is the Hari-Hara Temple no. 1 (Image 5) which has an elegant chatushakha (four-band) door frame resting on a door sill. The innermost shakha is adorned with patravalli motifs, while the middle shakha displays naga (serpent) figures and nagabandha (serpent band). The third shakha is a rupashakha adorned with amorous mithuna couples, with dancing figures depicted at the top. At the lintel, the third shakha has representations of maladhar couples arriving from both directions to venerate the figure of Vishnu mounted on Garuda at the lalatabimba. The lintel above the third shakha features five tilakas (miniature shrines), two of which are adorned with the images of Ganesh and Kubera. The bahyashakha is adorned with padmapatti (lotus band) motifs framing the entire door frame. The lower section of the pedya (door jamb) features images of river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna along the pratihara figures. The door frame of the Hari-Hara Temple no. 2 (Image 6) is similar to Temple no. 1, however, it is more ornate at the lintel. Here, too, the lintel above the third shakha is decorated with five tilakas, alternating with figures of dancers and musicians. The iconographic program here is more complex than the former example. Each tilaka is adorned with figural sculptures of deities representing (from left to right) Ganesh, Hara-Gauri, Lakshmi-Narayana, Brahma with consort, and Kubera. The bahyashakha is adorned with padmapatti motifs. A new element seen in the post-Gupta period is the depiction of navagraha (nine planetary deities) above the door frame, seen in the Hari-Hara Temple no. 2, in its evolved form. The lower part of the doorway has the standard composition of river goddesses with attendants and pratihara figures. By this time, the composition of the door frame becomes formulaic and lacks the innovation and sophistication of the Gupta period. For example, the Vishnu Temple no. 2 (Image 7) of a slightly later date, displays the standard four shakhas, but its lintel is less elaborate.

Mature Medieval Idiom: Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha

The Sun Temple at Modhera (Image 8), Gujarat, exemplifies an evolved Western-style door frame. Positioned at the centre of the eastern wall of the temple, the door adheres to the proportions prescribed in various Shilpa texts.[1] The doorway comprises the threshold, jambs, and lintel, although the ornamentation of the threshold has withered away over time. Though the door frame has only three shakhas, its ornamentation is highly complex. The innermost shakha is adorned with patravalli motifs and flower buds, while the outer rupashakha features a plethora of twisted and twirled human figures. The central stambhashakha is panchratha in plan, with its central portion showcasing sculptures of the Sun God in niches crowned by pediments. A total of eight sculptures are present in this section. The lateral parts of the stambhashakha are embellished with attendant figures, while the dharanvita ghatapallava (fluted vase) with foliage turnovers) forms the capital of the stambhashakha. The lower part of the jambs is occupied by pratihara figures depicted in graceful tribhanga poses. These figures are flanked by a group of female figures and mithuna couples, adding to the intricate ornamentation of the door frame.

The lintel of the door frame is decorated with patravalli motifs. Above this, a frieze of vidyadhara figures is depicted, converging towards the centre to venerate the image at the lalatabimba. Unfortunately, the image at the lalatabimba has completely withered away over time. The beam above the band of vidyadharas has three miniature niches with images of the Hindu trinity: Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu. These deities are alternated with the images of adityas (represent the twelve months in the calendar and the twelve aspects of Sun) carved in recession. While the door frame’s highly crowded composition may appear appealing at first glance, it lacks the aesthetic refinement of the Gupta period.

The saptashakha (seven section or bands) door frame of the Lakshamana Temple at Khajuraho (Image 9), Madhya Pradesh dated to the 10th century CE (954 CE), stands as a remarkable example from Central India, showcasing the elaboration and complexity of a fully evolved medieval temple. The doorway features a high threshold approached through steps designed as chandrashilas (moonstones). The lintel of the doorway is adorned with the image of Goddess Lakshmi, attended to by elephants, at the lalatabimba. Brahma and Shiva occupy the corners of the lintel. Above this section, a sculptural frieze depicts the navagrahas. The lower part of the door frame is decorated with images of Ganga and Yamuna along with guardian deities. Devangana Desai identifies these guardian figures as Dhata and Vidhata in the rupamandana (sculptural ornamentation or decoration). In terms of iconography, the central shakha is particularly interesting as it is adorned by the incarnations of Vishnu. On the left side, the central jamb features images of Matsya, Varaha, and Vamana whereas the right central jamb is adorned by Kurma, Narasimha, and Parasuram; incarnations of Vishnu. In the Matsya form, the fish incarnation of Lord Vishnu is depicted rescuing the four vedas (ancient religious scriptures).

Carved out of chlorite, the elaborate door frame of jagamohana (main mandapa) of the Sun Temple at Konark (Image 10), Odisha, differs from Western and Central Indian examples in terms of clarity and precision in its decorative scheme, although the motifs remain similar. The lower part of the door jamb features seven divine figures standing on lotus pedestals on either side of the door (Image 11). These figures, arranged from the outer to the inner side, represent the following divinities: a ferocious male figure, a nagadeva (serpent deity) with kalasha (pot), an apsara (celestial damsel), two kinnaras (part human and part bird mythical creature, one above the other, playing cymbals and flute, a female figure, a male figure, and a male figure probably a guardian deity. Interestingly, depictions of river goddesses are absent.

Above these figures, are various shakhas, which continue as seven bands on the lintel. The innermost shakha is adorned with patravalli motifs, featuring a Gaja Lakshmi image at the lalatabimba. The Goddess is flanked by cauri bearers. The second shakha is decorated with nagabandh (serpent tie) motifs, while the third is a mithuna shakha. At the lintel, this shakha features a depiction of female celestial musicians. The fourth shakha is decorated with dwarf figures, some of whom are depicted with musical instruments. The lintel of the fourth jamb features figurative representations of flying vidyadharas. The fifth stambhashakha is ornamented with mouldings and kirtimukha (face of glory)

motifs. The sixth shakha, similar to the third, depicts amorous couples. At the lintel, the central niches of all the shakhas from the second to sixth feature depictions of an ascetic with two disciples. The seventh band is decorated with a srivriksha design, which continues onto the lintel.

Conclusion

The examination of temple door frames, drawing from references in Shilpa texts and case studies of various temples in North India, highlights the significant role these structures played in temple architecture. Serving as the threshold to the garbhagriha, they symbolize the transition from the worldly to the spiritual realm for devotees. The decorative schemes of these door frames are imbued with symbolism, focusing on concepts such as purification, introspection, fertility, and abundance. From the simple ornamental details observed in early examples like Sanchi Temple no. 17 to the intricate and elaborate compositions found in temples like the Sun Temple at Konark, the underlying essence remains consistent. Stylistically, the Gupta period marks both the inception and efflorescence of temple door frame development. Although the medieval period witnessed further evolution and complexity in design, it lacked the charm and sophistication of its ancient predecessors. Ultimately, the temple door frame serves not only as a physical structure but also as a profound symbol, guiding devotees in their spiritual journey and encapsulating the rich cultural and artistic heritage of ancient India.

Footnotes:

[1] Varahamihira, Brihat Samhita, Adh. LVI. sl. 11-16, 494-495.

[2] Acharya, Manasara, Adh. XXXVIII, sl. 35-37.

[3] Pandey, Mayamatam, Adh. XXX, sl. 2-3, 485. The Mayamata is a Vastusastra, i.e., a treatise on dwelling and as such it deals with all the facets of gods' and men's dwellings.

[4] Pandey, Mayamatam, Adh. XXX, sl. 33-37, 485.

[5]Acharya, Manasara, Adh. XXXIX, sl. 156-161.

[6] Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, vol. 2, 316.

[7] Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, vol. 2, 315.

[8] Dhaky, ed. EITA North India: Beginnings of Medieval Idiom c. A.D. 900-1000., vol. 2, 39.

[9] Huntington, The Art of Ancient India, 210.

[10] Lobo, The Sun-Temple at Modhera, 17.

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