Temples of India: Select Glossary
This select glossary is intended to serve as a comprehensive reference for terms related to temple architecture, with a specific focus on the temples of Rajasthan that were documented in the first phase of the Temples of India project. The glossary is divided into various sections, each covering distinct aspects of temple architecture, facilitating easier navigation and understanding for researchers, students, and enthusiasts. This resource aims to enhance understanding and appreciation of the intricate architectural heritage encapsulated in the temple complexes.
Note: The glossary will keep on updating with terms based on studies of temples under the Temples of India project.
Temple complexes, under the Jaipur and Jodhpur Circles of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), documented between October 2023 to March 2024.
Floor plan and section of the Harshnath Temple
Styles
- Nagara [Nāgara; नागर]: The north Indian style of temple architecture, characterized by a beehive-shaped (rekha-prāsāda) towering shikara. The term rekha means line or stripe, and prasada [prāsāda] refers to a palace or tower-like structure. The Nagara-style temples are usually built on high platforms and are generally more compact and vertically oriented structures.
- Dravida [Drāviḍa; द्रविड़]: A south Indian architectural style characterized by barrel-vaulted pyramidical towers called vimanas and elaborate gopurams (gateway towers).
- Vesara [Vesara; वेसर]: A blend of dravida and nagara architectural styles, often seen in the Deccan region, parts of Karnataka, characterized by a combination of curvilinear and pyramidal spires, as well as a rectangular sanctum.
- Bhumija [Bhūmija; भूमिज]: A curvilinear stepped vertical elevation style, bhumija is a regional variation of the nagara style prevalent in central India and Rajasthan. This style evolved during the medieval period, particularly between the 10th and 13th centuries CE. The term ‘Bhumija’ literally means ‘earth-born’ or ‘born from the ground’. It denotes a style where the temple's shikhara is formed directly from the ground level, without a distinct base platform.
- Maha-Maru and Maru-Gurjara [Mahā-Maru and Maru-Gurjara; महा-मरु और मरु-गुर्जर]: According to M. A. Dhaky, Maha-Maru style is a distinct architecture developed primarily in Marudesa, Sapadalaksa, Surasena and parts of Uparamala (in Rajasthan and Gujarat) whereas Maru-Gurjara originated in Medapata, Gurjaradesa-Arbuda, Gurjaradesa-Anarta and some areas of Gujarat. These are known for their ornate and intricate carvings. The accurate transliteration of the term is 'Maru' rather than 'Māru', a distinction also noted by Dhaky. [1] However, 'Māru' has become a widely adopted term in studies of Indian architectural history.
- Phamsana [Phāṁsanā; फामसना]: A variant of shikhara, characterized by its stepped pyramidal spire, often adorned the mandapas, miniature shrines and decorative motifs.
- Shekhari [Śekhari; शेखरी]: A type of superstructure characterized by its multiple smaller spires or projections arranged around a central spire. This multi-spired variety of shikhara has central latina spires with rows of half spires added on either side.
- Latina [Laṭina; लतिन]: The mono-spire shikhara variety is characterized by its curvilinear or convex shape, often resembling the shape of a bell. This style is commonly seen in temples across different regions of India, particularly in the north and west.
Ground plans and temple layout
- Panchayatana [Pañchāyatana; पञ्चायतन]: A temple layout featuring a central shrine surrounded by four subsidiary shrines, often placed at the four corners of the platform.
- Dvi-anga [Dvi-aṅga; द्वि-अंग]: Two planes of an offset; an architectural layout of a temple complex that typically consists of two main parts or limbs, such as a garbhagriha and a mandapa.
- Tri-anga [Tri-aṅga; त्रि-अंग]: Three planes of an offset. This architectural layout denotes the division of a temple into three parts or sections, typically reflecting symbolic or functional divisions within the sacred space of the temple.
- Pancharatha [Pañcaratha; पंचरथ]: A temple plan characterized by the presence of five projections or rathas arranged symmetrically along the central axis. Pancharatha plans are commonly associated with Nagara-style temples and represent the five elements of nature.
- Saptaratha [Saptaratha; सप्तरथ]: A saptaratha temple plan is characterized by the presence of seven projections or rathas arranged symmetrically along the central axis.
- Pradakshina patha [Pradakṣiṇā patha; प्रदक्षिणा पथ]: The circumambulatory path around the temple, allowing the devotees to perform pradakshina (ritual circumambulation).
- Nandi Mandapa [Nandī Maṇḍapa; नंदी मंडप]: A pavilion specifically dedicated to Nandi, the sacred bull and mount of Shiva, often located in close proximity to the main shrine of Shiva temples and feature a sculpted image or idol of Nandi facing the sanctum.
- Mukhamandapa [Mukhamaṇḍapa; मुखमंडप]: The front porch or entrance hall of the mandapa.
- Ardhamandapa [Ardhamaṇḍapa; अर्धमंडप]: An intermediary hall between the mandapa and the exterior.
- Mandapa [Maṇḍapa; अर्धमंडप]: A pillared hall used for congregational worship, rituals, and offerings.
- Sabhamandapa [Sabhāmaṇḍapa; सभामंडप]: A large hall used for assemblies and gatherings.
- Maha Mandapa [Mahā Maṇḍapa; महा मण्डप]: Also known as the ‘great mandapa,’ it denotes a larger and more elaborate pillared hall compared to the standard mandapa. Maha mandapas are often found in grand temple complexes and serve as venues for significant religious and cultural events.
- Gudhamandapa [Gūḍhamaṇḍapa; गूढमण्डप]: Enclosed hall often richly decorated and used for various ceremonial functions.
- Antarala [Antarāla; अन्तराल]: The vestibule or antechamber connecting the garbhagriha to the mandapa, often serving as a transitional space.
- Varandika [Varaṇḍikā; वरणडिका]: Moulded parapet; series of mouldings in the form of cornices.
- Kakshasana [Kakśāsana; कक्षासन]: Seat backs; a parapet or decorative railing found along the inner perimeter of a mandapa or other enclosed space within a temple complex.
- Mulaprasada [Mūla-prāsāda; मूल प्रासाद]: The principal structure of the temple, including the garbhagriha and the surrounding halls.
- Garbhagriha [Garbhagṛha; गर्भगृह]: The innermost sanctum of the temple, housing the representation of the primary deity of the temple.
Sections and elevation of a temple
- Jagati [Jagati; जगति]: The raised platform on which the temple building stands, often used for circumambulation or pradakshina.
- Adhisthana [Adhiṣṭhān; आधिष्ठान]: The pedestal or platform upon which the temple structure rests. It serves as the foundation of the temple and often exhibits intricate carvings and decorative motifs.
- Vedibandha [Vedibandha; वेदीबन्ध]: The foundation block or socle of a temple. It is the decorated base upon which the temple walls rise.
- Pitha [Pīṭha; पीठ]: A small platform over the jagati. It is an intermediate section between the vedi and the jangha. It acts as a transition zone, linking the foundation to the main body of the temple.
- Upapitha [Upapīṭha; उपपीठ]: The base moulding or decorative band that adorns the lower portion of the temple's bhitti or outer wall.
- Khura [Khura; खुर]: The hoof-shaped lowermost lip is one of the mouldings in the vedibandha. It is characterized by its sharp-edged grooved design.
- Kumbha [Kumbha; कुम्भ]: High basal moulding with a pot-shaped curved shoulder. Literally translating as a pot or vessel, the motif is also frequently seen in temple carvings and architectural designs, symbolizing fertility and abundance.
- Kalasha [Kalaša; कलश]: Pitcher-shaped or tourus moulding. Kalasha or vase is also used as a decorative element.
- Antarapata [Antarapaṭṭa; अंतरपट्ट]: Broad recesses between the basal mouldings or vedibandha.
- Kapotali [Kapotālī; कपोताली]: Cyma eve cornice is a moulding, in the vedibandha, featuring a series of concave and convex projections resembling the tails of birds.
- Bhitti [Bhitti; भित्ति]: The outer wall or enclosure of the temple complex. It defines the boundary of the sacred space.
- Jangha [Jāṅgha; जांघ]: The vertical wall or body of the temple that rises from the adhisthana. It forms the primary enclosure of the garbhagriha between the base and the shikhara, often decorated with horizontal bands of architectural motifs, friezes, or narrative sculptures.
- Kapili [Kapili; कपिलि]: Connecting compressed wall of the constricted space of the vestibule on either side which is projected externally. It is the buffer wall between the garbhagriha and the mandapa.
- Bhadra [Bhadra; भद्र]: The term refers to a prominent, central projection or face of a temple's structure, particularly on the garbhagriha. It is often carved with sculptures or narratives associated with the presiding deity of the temple.
- Pratibhadra [Pratibhadra; प्रतिभद्र]: This is again a rectangular offset projection on the wall, flanking the Bhadra but smaller in size.
- Karna [Karṇa; कर्ण]: The term refers to a prominent, corner offset or projection of a temple's structure, particularly on the garbhagriha. It is often carved with sculptures or narratives associated with the presiding deity of the temple.
- Griva [Grīva; ग्रीवा]: The neck or intermediate section of the temple's superstructure, connecting the jangha with the shikhara, typically adorned with decorative mouldings, miniature towers, and sculptural panels.
- Shikhara [Śikhara; शिखर]: The towering spire or superstructure crowning the garbhagriha of a temple, often elaborately decorated with intricate carvings and sculptures.
- Vimana [Vimāna; विमान]: The term used in south Indian temple architecture to refer to the tower above the garbhagriha. Characterized by a pyramidal shape and tiered stories, it is equivalent to the shikhara in north Indian temples.
- Bhumi [Bhūmi; भूमि]: A term referring to the terraced or stepped levels or stories in a temple's structure, often marked by horizontal mouldings that divide the vertical sections of the structure.
- Tala [Tala; तल]: The horizontal sections or tiers of the temple's superstructure, which are stacked upon one another to form the shikhara (spire). Each tala may have its own decorative elements such as mouldings, friezes and miniature shrines.
Decorative and iconographic elements
- Amalaka [Āmalaka; आमलक]: A segmented or notched stone disk, often with a ribbed or floral design, that sits atop the shikhara of a temple. It acts as a crowning element.
- Anekandaka [Anekāṅḍaka; अनेकाण्डक]: Multi-spired Shikhara.
- Ankush [Aṅkuśa; अंकुश]: A bullhook type of weapon consisting of a sharp metal hook attached to a wooden handle. It is often associated with the iconography of Ganesha.
- Apsara [Apsarā; अप्सरा]: Surasundari; celestial nymphs or divine dancers.
- Ashtadikapala [Aṣṭadikapāla; अष्टदिक्पाल]: The eight directional guardians, each associated with a specific cardinal direction in temple iconography.
- Bhumi-Amlaka [Bhūmi-Āmalaka; भूमि-आमलक]: Miniature amalakas (segmented or notched stone disks) placed at various levels of the shikhara, often marking the divisions of the bhumi or storeys.
- Chaitya [Caitya; चैत्य] arch motif: A horseshoe-shaped or dormer window motif used for decorating different sections of the temple, from basal mouldings to shikhara.
- Chakra [Cakra, चक्र]: Depicted as a serrated disc or discus with a central hub, this is a weapon associated with Vaishnava iconography.
- Chandrashala [Candraśālā; चंद्रशाला]: A decorative motif resembling a barrel-vaulted roof, with a circular dormer-shaped or horseshoe-shaped arch (gavaksa), often used to adorn the doorways, windows, niches and other sections of the temple.
- Chandrashila [Candraśilā; चंद्रशिला]: A crescent-shaped moonstone platform, usually placed at the base of the temple entrance, right in front of the threshold (door sill). It serves as a step or platform that devotees step onto before entering the sanctum.
- Damru [Damrū; डमरु]: Hourglass-shaped drum associated with Shaiva iconography.
- Devakoshtha [Devakoṣṭha; देवकोष्ठ]: Niche or alcove in the temple wall that houses images or sculptures of deities or divine beings, serving as focal points of worship and devotion for devotees.
- Devakulika [Devakulika; देवकुलिक]: Miniature turreted shrines built on the inner side of the prakara.
- Dikapala [Dikapāla; दिक्पाल]: Celestial deities assigned to safeguard the various cardinal and intermediate directions (north, south, east, west, northeast, southeast, etc). Each direction is typically associated with a specific dikapala, and they are often depicted as powerful beings who ensure cosmic order and protect the universe from malevolent forces.
- Dvarapala [Dvārapāla; द्वारपाल]: Guardian figures flanking the entrance of the garbhagriha, often depicted as fierce warriors.
- Dvarashakha [Dvāraśākhā; द्वारशाखा]: Entrance architecture marking the entry to the garbhagriha of the temple. The architraves or vertical bands of the doorway are often in odd numbers.
- Gada [Gadā; गदा]: Mace; a weapon.
- Gaja-vayala [Gaja-vyāla; गजव्याल]: Mythical creatures, part-elephant and part-lion, used as decorative motifs in temple architecture.
- Harmika [Harmikā; हर्मिका]: A square or rectangular projection or chamber situated above the main shikhara of a temple, housing a divine image or symbolic representation. The harmika is often adorned with sculptural panels or lattice windows.
- Jali [Jālī; जाली]: A perforated stone or latticed screen, sometimes with intricate geometric or floral designs, allowing light and air to enter the interior spaces while maintaining privacy.
- Jatabhara [Jaṭābhāra; जटाभार]: Braided hairdo; usually associated with Shaiva iconography, the jatabhara consists of thick, twisted locks of hair tied into a topknot or bun on the crown atop the head.
- Jatamukuta [Jaṭāmukuṭa; जटामुकुट]: A crown of matted hairdo; usually associated with Shaiva iconography, refers to the crown or headdress adorned with matted hair or jata.
- Kalasha [Kalaśa; कलश]: Pot-shaped ornament symbolizing prosperity and positioned at the pinnacle of the shikhara/vimana.
- Khatvanga [Khaṭavāṅga; खट्वाङ्ग]: The khatvanga is often depicted as a long staff or scepter with a skull at the top.
- Kirita Mukuta [Kirīṭmukuṭa; किरीट मुकुट]: A conical cylinder-shaped crown, commonly attributed to the iconography of Vishnu.
- Kirtimukha [Kīrtimukha; कीर्तिमुख]: Face of glory; a decorative motif commonly found on the bhitti, it represents a fierce or protective face often depicted with protruding fangs and bulging eyes.
- Kuta [Kūṭa; कूट]: A decorative motif or miniature projection commonly found on the corners or edges of the shikhara in nagara style temples. Kutas add architectural embellishments and serve as focal points for sculptural reliefs.
- Kutastambha [Kūṭastambha; कूटस्तम्भ]: A vertical chain of miniature spires sitting on a pillar form embellishing the superstructure.
- Linga [Liṅga; लिंग]: A cylindrical pillar or an oval-shaped stone, often placed on a yoni-pitha. It is revered as the aniconic representation of Shiva. The linga is considered a symbol of generative power and fertility in Hindu tradition and philosophy.
- Maithuna [Maithuna; मैथुन]: Figures and couples engaged in sexual activities or copulation.
- Makara [Makara; मकर]: A mythical crocodile-like sea-creature motif used as a decorative element. It is also shown as the mount of the river goddess Ganga.
- Mithuna [Mithuna; मिथुन]: Amorous couples, often found on the outer walls of temples, symbolizing fertility and the union of male and female principles.
- Naga [Nāga; नाग]: Serpent deities or divine snakes, frequently depicted in temple iconography.
- Nayika [Nāyikā; नायिका]: Female dancer.
- Pasha [Pāśa; पाश]: In Hindu iconography and mythology, pasha refers to a noose or rope, which is often depicted as an attribute held by various deities, particularly in the hands of gods like Shiva, Yama, and Varuna.
- Pratyanga [Pratyāṅga; प्रत्यङ्ग]: A small shrine, aedicule or niche often containing a deity sculpture, found in the external walls or shikharas of temples.
- Ratha [Ratha; रथ]: Projections or recesses along the walls of a temple, giving the structure its articulated and dynamic appearance. They can be in the form of pilasters or more complex designs.
- Rathika [Rathikā; रथिका]: A row of miniature niches above the lintel beam of the doorjamb of the garbhagriha.
- Sarpa [Sarpa; सर्प]: Serpent or snake; often associated with water bodies, fertility, and protection.
- Sarvatobhadra [Sarvatobhadra; सर्वतोभद्र]: 'Sarvato', refers to ‘from all sides’ or ‘in all directions,’ and ‘bhadra’, translates to ‘auspicious’ or ‘beneficial’, meaning that the temple, sanctum sanctorum or the primary deity are accessible and can be worshipped from all four cardinal directions.
- Shankha [Śāṅkha; शङ्ख]: Conch shell; primarily associated with Vaishnava iconography.
- Stambha [Staṃbha; स्तम्भ]: A pillar or column, often inscribed and sometimes intricately carved with sculptures or symbols, used structurally and decoratively in temple architecture. It supports the roof or other structures.
- Surasundari [Surasuṅdarī; सुरसुन्दरी]: Apsara; divine celestial maidens or damsels.
- Torana [Toraṇa; तोरण]: An ornamental gateway or archway, often marking the entrance, elaborately decorated with sculptures and carvings.
- Udgama [Udgama; उद्गम]: Pediment pediment of interconnected gavaksha (horseshoe-shaped dormers).
- Udumbara [Uḍuṃbara उदुम्बर]: Threshold of the garbhagriha doorway.
- Urushringa [Uruśṛṅga; उरुशृङ्ग]: A subsidiary spire or miniature tower attached to the main shikhara. These smaller spires are characteristic features in the architectural style of many north Indian temples, particularly those built in the nagara style.
- Uttaranga [Uttarāṅga; उत्तरांग]: Entablature or top section of the doorjamb of the garbhagriha entrance.
- Vahana [Vāhana; वाहन]: The mount or vehicle of a deity, depicted in temple sculptures and carvings. For example, Nandi the bull is the vahana of Shiva.
- Varadahasta [Varadahasta; वरदहस्त]: The term combines ‘varada,’ meaning ‘boon-giving’ or ‘granting,’ and ‘hasta,’ meaning ‘hand.’ The mudra is characterized by the deity's hand being extended downward, with the palm facing outward, typically with fingers pointing downward. This gesture signifies conferring a boon.
- Yaksha/Yakshi [Yakśa/Yakśi; यक्ष/यक्षी]: Benevolent nature spirits, representing fertility, wealth, and prosperity, often found as guardian figures in temple art.
- Yali [Yāli; याली]: Mythical creatures often depicted in temple architecture, usually with the body of a lion and various other animal attributes, symbolizing protection and strength.
- Yoni or Yoni-pitha [Yoni or Yoni-piṭha; योनि/ योनि-पीठ]: The base or pedestal of a Shiva linga, symbolizing the feminine principle in Hindu philosophy and mythology and often depicted as a circular or rectangular platform with a drainage channel.
Additional terms
- Chhatri [Chhatri; छतरी]: A small, domed pavilion commonly found in north Indian temples, often used as an architectural embellishment. Often the term is also used for a cenotaph with a domed roof.
- Devalaya [Devālaya; देवालय]: A general term for a temple, meaning ‘abode of the deity.’
- Jinalaya [Jinālaya; जिनालय]: A Jain temple.
- Jinaprasada [Jināprāsāda; जिनाप्रासाद]: In the case of Jinalaya, the mulaprasada or main temple is called Jinaprasada.
- Kunda [Kuṇḍa; कुंड): A stepped water tank used for ritual ablutions.
- Mandir [Maṇdir; मंदिर]: A generic term for a Hindu temple.
- Murti [Murṭi; मूर्ति]: A sculpted idol or image of a deity.
- Pradakshina [Pradakṣiṇā; प्रदक्षिणा]: The ritual of circumambulation around the garbhagriha or the temple complex, performed often in a clockwise direction.
- Prakar [Prākāra; प्राकार]: The outer wall enclosing the temple complex.
- Prasada [Prāsāda; प्रासाद]: The term refers to a palace or tower-like structure.
- Pratima [Pratimā; प्रतिमा]: The sculptural representation or image of a deity enshrined within the sanctum sanctorum of the temple. Pratima serves as the focal point of devotion and worship for the temple's devotees.
- Sthapati [Sthapati; स्थपति]: The chief architect or sculptor responsible for designing and constructing temples, adhering to traditional principles of temple architecture.
Footnote:
[1] Dhaky, M.A., 'The Genesis and Development of Māru-Gurjara Temple Architecture,' in Studies in Indian Temple Architecture, ed. Pramod Chandra. New Delhi: American Institute of Indian Studies, 1975.