Religious Layers at the Hill of Lord Harsha

By Anchit Jain

भिन्नावृत्यं समस्तं भवति हि भुवनं यस्य नृत्ते प्रवृत्ते

स श्रीहर्षाभिधानो जयति पशुपतिर्दत्तविश्वानुकंपः ।।

Verse 3, Harsha stone inscription of Vigraharaja

After bowing down to Lord Ganesha, the destroyer of obstacles, the poet of the famed Harshnath stone inscription (V.S. 1030; 957 CE) of the Chauhan King Vigraharaja IV, dedicates the next ten verses to the glory of Lord Shiva. This inscription, also the most important document of the early Chauhan history, was engraved on a large slab of black stone that was found on the porch of a 10th-century dilapidated Shiva temple, the Harshnath Temple (Image 1), located on Harsha Hill in Sikar, Rajasthan. The lord is adored in the inscription as Harsha Shambhu, and so are the temple and the hill on which it is located, which was named after him. The subsequent verses record the dynastic history of the patron Chauhan dynasty and their devotion to Lord Harsha, hailed here as their family deity or the kula devata. The Shaiva ascetics of the Lakulisa-Pashupata tradition likely built the original temple of Harsha in the early ninth century, re-erected it in the mid-10th century, and dedicated several verses to celebrate their ascetic virtues, worldly-detachment, tapas (ascetic practice), and devotion to Lord Pashupati, another name for Lord Harsha as the hill. The Shaiva-Pashupata tradition clearly enjoyed dominance at the hill. (v 28-46) A careful reading of verse 7 between the lines suggests there were rather two temples dedicated to God Harsha, one on the hill and another down below. [1]

Image 1: The temple, now in a state of considerable ruin, consists of a mulaprasada of tri-anga specification, joined by a rangamandapa. It lacks the pitha but begins with a single plinth. Despite some damage, the vedibandha once featured a kumbha, adorned with intricate udgama motifs, and a small central box containing a figure. The jangha, now almost entirely ruined, had dikpalas at the karnas, as evidenced by remains in the northeastern corner. The surasundaris were possibly located at the pratirathas and the salilantara-recesses. Inside the sanctum is a shivalinga in active worship, which seems to be contemporaneous with the main shrine.
Image 1: The temple, now in a state of considerable ruin, consists of a mulaprasada of tri-anga specification, joined by a rangamandapa. It lacks the pitha but begins with a single plinth. Despite some damage, the vedibandha once featured a kumbha, adorned with intricate udgama motifs, and a small central box containing a figure. The jangha, now almost entirely ruined, had dikpalas at the karnas, as evidenced by remains in the northeastern corner. The surasundaris were possibly located at the pratirathas and the salilantara-recesses. Inside the sanctum is a shivalinga in active worship, which seems to be contemporaneous with the main shrine.

What the inscription fails, or perhaps intentionally omits, is the presence of several shrines dedicated to different Brahmanical deities, as corroborated by the archaeological remains at the site. Several minor shrines surround the principal shrine, in total ruin, with only their base courses remaining and lacking any particular order of symmetry and proportions. [2] (Image 2) Therefore, the complex's design never included a Pachayatan-style main temple with four subsidiary shrines at each of the four corners. Elizabeth Cecil has noted the remains of at least twelve temple foundations. Some of these foundations date back to the main shrine, while others were still under construction until the 11th century CE. [3] This photo essay aims to highlight the diverse religious layers behind the overwhelming Shaiva mood of the complex, decoding the archaeological layers and focussing on how the Shaiva domination was visually and symbolically articulated at the site.

Image 2: In the 10th and 11th centuries, Harsha Hill saw the construction of about a dozen subsidiary shrines. Architectural fragments evidence the dedication of these shrines to various Brahmanical deities. Unlike a Panchayatan temple or a planned temple complex, these sub-shrines' irregular placement and size proportions suggest randomness and unplanned construction over an extended period of time. They exhibit a variety of pitha, usually corresponding to the Maha-Maru styles, but some of them also exhibit Maha-Gurjara features.
Image 2: In the 10th and 11th centuries, Harsha Hill saw the construction of about a dozen subsidiary shrines. Architectural fragments evidence the dedication of these shrines to various Brahmanical deities. Unlike a Panchayatan temple or a planned temple complex, these sub-shrines' irregular placement and size proportions suggest randomness and unplanned construction over an extended period of time. They exhibit a variety of pitha, usually corresponding to the Maha-Maru styles, but some of them also exhibit Maha-Gurjara features.

While the Harshnath Temple was the epicentre of the sacrality of the site, it was dotted with shrines dedicated to the Vaishnav, Surya, Shakta, and likely also the Ganapatya traditions. Surprisingly, one of the earliest sculptures found at the site is not Shaiva, but an independent sculpture of Surya, the Sun God, now placed in a masonry shelter near the Harsha Bhairav Temple on the hill Ambika Dhaka. This sculpture dates to the 8th century CE. [4] (Image 3) The sculpture significantly predates the construction of the Harshnath Temple in the second half of the 10th century. The Harshnath stone inscription records the devotion of an early founding figure of the Chauhan line, Guvaka I, a local chieftain and feudatory of the powerful imperial Pratihara dynasty, who lived roughly during the first quarter of the ninth century CE. The inscription does not clarify whether Guvaka himself erected a humble shrine to Lord Harsha, later re-erected in the second half of the 10th century, or if such a shrine already existed on the hill and Guvaka simply worshipped him, establishing royal connections with the already existing cultic figure, Harsha. (v 13) While the Shaiva association with the hill could have preceded Guvaka’s time, the much older association with Surya worship on the hill is certain.

Image 3: This is arguably the oldest sculpture at the shrine, dating back to the 8th century CE, according to Ambika Dhaka. The sculpture significantly precedes the Harshanth Temple, built in the second half of the 10th century. The figure embodies the standard iconographic features of the Sun God, including fully bloomed lotuses in two hands, long tunics, boots, and retinue figures in pairs, representing his companions, Danda and Pingala, his wives, and his sons, the Ashvins,
Image 3: This is arguably the oldest sculpture at the shrine, dating back to the 8th century CE, according to Ambika Dhaka. The sculpture significantly precedes the Harshanth Temple, built in the second half of the 10th century. The figure embodies the standard iconographic features of the Sun God, including fully bloomed lotuses in two hands, long tunics, boots, and retinue figures in pairs, representing his companions, Danda and Pingala, his wives, and his sons, the Ashvins,

The temple dedicated to the Sun God continued to be built in subsequent centuries, as evidenced by a majestic sculpture of Surya, now housed in the Akbari Fort and Museum, Ajmer, dating roughly to the late 10th century CE. (Image 4) The sculpture, arguably one of the finest at the site, appropriately portrays the radiant glow of the majestic Sun God through a halo in the form of a fully bloomed lotus. Another sculpture depicts Surya in a trio alongside Ganesha and Chandra, potentially representing a large panel of the navagraha, or nine planets (Image 5). An extremely rare image of Chhaya, one of Surya's wives, is now placed in the storeroom of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) at Harsha Hill, further solidifying the maturity of the Surya tradition at the hill. Her iconography closely resembles that of her husband, but a distinctive feature of this image at Harsha Hill, noted by Elizabeth Cecil, is that she holds a trident in one of her left hands. The inclusion of the trident, otherwise uncommon in Surya images, suggests a visual link between Chhaya and Shiva, as the signature attribute of Shiva. [5] The coexistence of Shiva and Surya at Harsha becomes historically significant. While Surya had a long association with the hill, as did Shiva, the shared space significantly tilted in favour of the latter at least from the ninth century onwards, and Shiva gradually became the epicentre of the hill’s sacredness and part of the royal cult.

Image 4: The sanctum of a lost Surya shrine once housed this majestic image of Surya. Coupled with multiple other Surya images at the shrine (Surya, Chhaya, etc.), it suggests the maturity of Surya tradition at the hill, which was present at the hill at least from the 8th century—much before the emergence of Harshadeva-Shiva as the royal shrine at the hill. He is holding two fully bloomed lotuses in each hand. Danda and Pingala, his companions, flank him on either side, right next to his legs, while the pair of horse-faced Ashvin brothers stand at his back.
Image 4: The sanctum of a lost Surya shrine once housed this majestic image of Surya. Coupled with multiple other Surya images at the shrine (Surya, Chhaya, etc.), it suggests the maturity of Surya tradition at the hill, which was present at the hill at least from the 8th century—much before the emergence of Harshadeva-Shiva as the royal shrine at the hill. He is holding two fully bloomed lotuses in each hand. Danda and Pingala, his companions, flank him on either side, right next to his legs, while the pair of horse-faced Ashvin brothers stand at his back.
Image 5: Affixed to the later structures at the site are several loose sculptures, including the trio of Ganesha, Surya, and Chandra. The three figures may have once been part of a larger panel depicting the nine heavenly bodies, or navagraha. While the dancing Ganesha has four arms, the images of Surya and Chandra only have two, which are both broken. Surya's erect uplift posture, or samabhanga, contrasts with Ganesha's dynamic posture and Chandra's tribhanga pose.
Image 5: Affixed to the later structures at the site are several loose sculptures, including the trio of Ganesha, Surya, and Chandra. The three figures may have once been part of a larger panel depicting the nine heavenly bodies, or navagraha. While the dancing Ganesha has four arms, the images of Surya and Chandra only have two, which are both broken. Surya's erect uplift posture, or samabhanga, contrasts with Ganesha's dynamic posture and Chandra's tribhanga pose.

Despite the Harsha temple complex's overall Shaiva inclination, the hill once housed multiple Vaishnava temples, none of which the Harsha temple inscription records. Elizabeth Cecil identified three displaced temple lintels deposited within courtyards at the site, in which Vishnu appears as the central deity, suggesting the presence of at least three Vaishnava temples at the hill. [6] This is further corroborated by the findings of several independent Vaishnava images, like the image of Shesasayi Vishnu or Vishnu reclining on the serpent Lord Shesa, now placed in the Government Museum, Sikar. (Image 6) One image particularly relevant to understanding the Vaishnava presence at the site is the image of Vaikuntha Vishnu, which reveals the presence of the Pancharatra [8] form of Vaishnavism at Harsha Hill. (Image 7) Pancharatra had spread to various regions of Rajasthan from the 8th century CE onwards, with its most visible manifestations in temples like the Harshatmata Temple of Abhaneri. This image reveals its spread, even if in a limited manner, up to the Shekhavati region. The Akbari Fort and Museum in Ajmer houses an important image of Shiva as lingodhbhav-murti, commemorating the Shaiva domination at the hill. (Image 8) depicts Shiva as the fiery pillar at the center of the panel, with the dejected duo of Brahma and Vishnu on either side, symbolizing their failure to reach the end of the fiery pillar.

Image 6: This image of Shesasayi Vishnu, or the reclining Vishnu on the serpent Lord Shesa, was likely once the main cultic image inside a now-lost Vaishnava shrine. The image shows nine planets on top, with Lakshmi serving Vishnu near his feet. Behind him are three ayudhapurusa, personifications of his weapons.
Image 6: This image of Shesasayi Vishnu, or the reclining Vishnu on the serpent Lord Shesa, was likely once the main cultic image inside a now-lost Vaishnava shrine. The image shows nine planets on top, with Lakshmi serving Vishnu near his feet. Behind him are three ayudhapurusa, personifications of his weapons.
Image 7: This important image of Vaikuntha Vishnu reveals the presence of the Pancharatra form of Vaishnavism at Harsha Hill. Pancharatra had spread to various regions of Rajasthan from the 8th century CE onwards, with its most visible manifestations in temples like the Harshatmata Temple of Abhaneri. This image reveals its spread to the region of Shekhavati, even if in a limited manner.
Image 7: This important image of Vaikuntha Vishnu reveals the presence of the Pancharatra form of Vaishnavism at Harsha Hill. Pancharatra had spread to various regions of Rajasthan from the 8th century CE onwards, with its most visible manifestations in temples like the Harshatmata Temple of Abhaneri. This image reveals its spread to the region of Shekhavati, even if in a limited manner.
Image 8: This is a depiction of Shiva in the form of lingodhbhav-murti. Stella Kramrisch described this particular image from Harsha: ‘In the universal night, the pillar, there was nothing; a fiery pillar appeared above the waters. Other than that, it had no beginning, no end. Brahma flew into the empyrean and failed to reach its top; Vishnu dove into the sea's depths and failed to find its bottom. The two gods then submit, becoming the fiery pillar's acolytes.
Image 8: This is a depiction of Shiva in the form of lingodhbhav-murti. Stella Kramrisch described this particular image from Harsha: ‘In the universal night, the pillar, there was nothing; a fiery pillar appeared above the waters. Other than that, it had no beginning, no end. Brahma flew into the empyrean and failed to reach its top; Vishnu dove into the sea's depths and failed to find its bottom. The two gods then submit, becoming the fiery pillar's acolytes.

The site significantly depicted Goddess Shakti, Shiva's counterpart, in her various manifestations. Shiva held a central position in the sanctum as a linga resting on a yoni, while beautiful sculptures of nayikas (female dancers) encircled Shakti as Parvati or Vikata on the principal wall. (Image 9) Similarly, images of Parvati and apsaras (celestial damsels) adorn the pillars of the mandapa (pillared hall) on all four sides. (Image 10) In the enclosure of the nearby Bhairon shrine, just outside its sanctum, her independent image in the form of Durga Mahishasuramardini is still in active worship. (Image 11) The site has revealed several independent yogini figures, suggesting the existence of a lost yogini temple compound. (Images 12, 13, and 14)

Image 9: Beautiful images of apsaras and female deities, such as Parvati, adorn the pillars in the niches of the Harsha Temple's mandapa. These female figurines correspond to the plethora of female figurines (Parvati and damsels) depicted on the walls inside the sanctum. Beneath these pillar niches are panels depicting musicians, dancers, celestial beings, deities like Ganesha, and ascetics. 
Image 9: Beautiful images of apsaras and female deities, such as Parvati, adorn the pillars in the niches of the Harsha Temple's mandapa. These female figurines correspond to the plethora of female figurines (Parvati and damsels) depicted on the walls inside the sanctum. Beneath these pillar niches are panels depicting musicians, dancers, celestial beings, deities like Ganesha, and ascetics. 
Image 10: Within the temple's sanctum, exquisite sculptures of nayikas adorn the walls, while a massive depiction of Parvati in penance, also known as the panchagni tapa, dominates the center of the principal/back wall. The image depicts a four-armed Parvati performing the panchagni tapa, with fires visible on either side. Known as Godhasana Gauri, she stands upright atop an iguana. On either side, there are two female attendants standing and two sitting.
Image 10: Within the temple's sanctum, exquisite sculptures of nayikas adorn the walls, while a massive depiction of Parvati in penance, also known as the panchagni tapa, dominates the center of the principal/back wall. The image depicts a four-armed Parvati performing the panchagni tapa, with fires visible on either side. Known as Godhasana Gauri, she stands upright atop an iguana. On either side, there are two female attendants standing and two sitting.
Image 11: Black paint and cloth have smeared this image of Durga Mahisasuramardini in active worship, obscuring its details. It is one of the many images contemporaneous to the Harsha shrine, affixed in the enclosure of the Bhairon shrine.
Image 11: Black paint and cloth have smeared this image of Durga Mahisasuramardini in active worship, obscuring its details. It is one of the many images contemporaneous to the Harsha shrine, affixed in the enclosure of the Bhairon shrine.
Image 12: This is one of the many images of yoginis found at the site, hinting at a lost yogini temple compound. Contextualizing this image with several other relevant images suggests a mature Shakti and tantric tradition at the site. This two-armed yogini's placid expressions in the lalitasana pose suggest her benevolent nature.
Image 12: This is one of the many images of yoginis found at the site, hinting at a lost yogini temple compound. Contextualizing this image with several other relevant images suggests a mature Shakti and tantric tradition at the site. This two-armed yogini's placid expressions in the lalitasana pose suggest her benevolent nature.
Image 13: This is one of the many images of yoginis found at the site, hinting at a lost yogini temple compound. Contextualizing this image with several other relevant images suggests a mature Shakti and tantric tradition at the site. The two-armed yogini sits in the lalitasana pose. She holds a mala in her right hand and a cup in her left hand. Her head is lost.
Image 13: This is one of the many images of yoginis found at the site, hinting at a lost yogini temple compound. Contextualizing this image with several other relevant images suggests a mature Shakti and tantric tradition at the site. The two-armed yogini sits in the lalitasana pose. She holds a mala in her right hand and a cup in her left hand. Her head is lost.
Image 14: This is a rare image of Vinayaki, the feminine aspect of Vinayaka or Ganesha (consort in some traditions). It is one of the several images once contained in the lost temples of the hill, which were later affixed on the walls of the Bhairon shrine complex. The stairs next to it have subsumed the lower portion of the image, leaving only a partial image visible.
Image 14: This is a rare image of Vinayaki, the feminine aspect of Vinayaka or Ganesha (consort in some traditions). It is one of the several images once contained in the lost temples of the hill, which were later affixed on the walls of the Bhairon shrine complex. The stairs next to it have subsumed the lower portion of the image, leaving only a partial image visible.

There is also a rare image of Vinayaki, the feminine aspect of Vinayaka or Ganesha (consort in some traditions). (Image 14) She is likely a tantric Shakti, suggesting a syncretic fusion of the Ganapatya and Shakta traditions. She is holding a cup in one of her hands, an attribute found in many of the Shaiva and Shakta images of the site that is associated with the tantric tradition. (Images 15) For instance, one interesting image of Shiva shows him holding a cup, or rather a skull, in his lower left hand while the fingers of his right hand dip towards the potion that it contains, often associated with experiencing the nectar of tantric bliss. Some tantric influences might have reached the site and could explain the presence of an unidentifiable enigmatic six-headed image, seemingly of Shaiva background, with four heads in the fierce form and two in the benevolent form. (Image 16)

Image 15: Housed in the Government Museum, Sikar, this elegant Shaiva figure was part of a devakostha, or sculptural niche, on the walls of a now-lost Shaiva shrine. The figure has four hands, with the upper two holding a skull-sceptre and cobras. He holds a cup, or rather a skull, in his lower left hand, while the fingers of his right hand dip towards the potion inside. On the left is an image of Vyala, which was once placed in the temple wall's salilantara recess.
Image 15: Housed in the Government Museum, Sikar, this elegant Shaiva figure was part of a devakostha, or sculptural niche, on the walls of a now-lost Shaiva shrine. The figure has four hands, with the upper two holding a skull-sceptre and cobras. He holds a cup, or rather a skull, in his lower left hand, while the fingers of his right hand dip towards the potion inside. On the left is an image of Vyala, which was once placed in the temple wall's salilantara recess.
Image 16: This enigmatic deity, who appears to be Shaiva, has six heads and twelve hands. Although all hands are broken, one appears to hold an attribute in the form of a trident. The waist portion is buried in the earth. The headgear comprises a jata-mukuta on four of the heads on the sides, which is typically associated with Shiva, and kirita-mukuta on the front and back heads, typically associated with Vishnu. While five of the faces exhibit a fierce form, one appears benevolent. 
Image 16: This enigmatic deity, who appears to be Shaiva, has six heads and twelve hands. Although all hands are broken, one appears to hold an attribute in the form of a trident. The waist portion is buried in the earth. The headgear comprises a jata-mukuta on four of the heads on the sides, which is typically associated with Shiva, and kirita-mukuta on the front and back heads, typically associated with Vishnu. While five of the faces exhibit a fierce form, one appears benevolent. 

Despite being eluded in the epigraphical records, the archaeological remains confirm the presence of multiple Brahmanical traditions at the site. One of these traditions, the Surya cult, had one of the earliest sacral presences at the site before it emerged as the predominant Shaiva centre. The epigraph wholeheartedly praises Shaiva ascetics of the Lakulisa-Pashupata tradition, who controlled the site at least from the mid-10th century onwards. The site houses an ithyphallic image of Shiva (Urdhvareta) or Lakulisa, a preceptor of the Pashupata tradition's doctrine. (Image 17) Images of Shaiva ascetics worshipping the shivalinga adorn the pillars in the mandapa of the Harshnath Temple. The diverse Brahmanical traditions that once dotted the hill have lost many of their shrines to time. Even the Harshnath Temple is in utter ruins, but Shaiva devotion at the hill has continued. Devotees and pilgrims first visit the late medieval temple at the entrance of the complex, then the ruinous Harshnath Temple, still in worship as Pancha-mukhi Mahadeva (Image 18), and finally the shrine of Harsha Bhairon (Image 19), the site's present epicenter of Shaiva devotion and pilgrimage.

Image 17: This is likely an image of Lakulisa, the preceptor of the Pashupata tradition doctrine. Given that the Harshnath Temple was clearly under the control of and likely erected by the ascetics of the Lakulisa-Pashupata tradition, the depiction of Lakulisa on temple walls comes as no surprise.
Image 17: This is likely an image of Lakulisa, the preceptor of the Pashupata tradition doctrine. Given that the Harshnath Temple was clearly under the control of and likely erected by the ascetics of the Lakulisa-Pashupata tradition, the depiction of Lakulisa on temple walls comes as no surprise.
Image 18: The four-faced linga, placed in the sanctum of the Harshnath Temple, is actively worshipped at the site. It has three benevolent faces, while the one facing north bears a fierce expression. They collectively represent Shiva's Sadashiva form. The idol is contemporaneous to the main shrine, but there is some debate over whether it was the original cult image in the shrine or a later replacement.
Image 18: The four-faced linga, placed in the sanctum of the Harshnath Temple, is actively worshipped at the site. It has three benevolent faces, while the one facing north bears a fierce expression. They collectively represent Shiva's Sadashiva form. The idol is contemporaneous to the main shrine, but there is some debate over whether it was the original cult image in the shrine or a later replacement.
Image 19: Near the Harshnath temple complex is the Bhairon shrine, which features a semi-iconic rock known locally as the Harsha Bhairon. People believe that he is a manifestation of the folk hero Harsha, who chose to settle on the hill to worship Shiva, and received his blessing to worship him as Bhairon. The walls of this complex display several sculptures from the 10th century.
Image 19: Near the Harshnath temple complex is the Bhairon shrine, which features a semi-iconic rock known locally as the Harsha Bhairon. People believe that he is a manifestation of the folk hero Harsha, who chose to settle on the hill to worship Shiva, and received his blessing to worship him as Bhairon. The walls of this complex display several sculptures from the 10th century.

Footnotes:

[1] Bhandarkar, ‘Some unpublished inscriptions reconsidered,’ 57.

[2] Dhaky, Meister, and Deva, eds.,107.

[3] Cecil, ‘The Medieval Temple as Material Archive.’

[4] Dhaka, ‘A fresh light on architectural and sculptural art of Shiva temple at Mount Harsha,’ 379.

[5] Cecil, ‘The Medieval Temple as Material Archive.’

[6] Ibid.

[7] Agrawal, ‘Goddess Vikatā of Harshanath,’ 240.

[8] Pancharatra Vaishnavism is an ancient sect centered on the worship of Lord Vishnu/Narayana as the supreme entity and elucidates different aspects and manifestations of the divine, through the concept of vyuha or emanations and avatar or manifestations. Its rituals and devotional practices are outlined in a large corpus of Pancharatra texts.

Bibliography:

Agrawal, R. C. ‘Goddess Vikatā of Harshanath, Sikar.’ In Jignasa: Journal of History of ideas and culture Part-2. Edited by Vibha Upadhyaya. Jaipur: University of Rajasthan, 2011-2012.

Bhandarkar, D. R. ‘Some unpublished inscriptions reconsidered-Harsha stone inscription of Vigraharaja.’ In Indian Antiquary, No.42 (1913) 57-64.

Cecil, Elizabeth A. ‘The Medieval Temple as Material Archive: Historical Preservation and the Production of Knowledge at Mount Harsha.’ Archive Journal. 2017. https://www.archivejournal.net/essays/the-medieval-temple-as-material-archive/.

Dhaka, Ambika. ‘A fresh light on architectural and sculptural art of Shiva temple at Mount Harsha, Sikar.’ In Purā Jagat-J.P. Joshi Commemoration volume, edited by C Mangarbandhu, A.K. Sharma, B.R. Mani, G.S. Khwaja, 370–380. Delhi, 2001.

Dhaky, M. A, Michael Meister, and Krishna Deva, eds. Encyclopedia of Indian Temple Architecture North India: Period of Early Maturity c. AD 700-900. Vol. 2 Part 2. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991.