The Harshatmata Temple: An iconographic puzzle

By Srija Sahay

Originally dedicated to Pancharatra Vaishnavism, the Harshatmata Temple at Abhaneri, Rajasthan, is a 9th-century CE complex. While its dilapidated state makes it difficult for us to visualise the temple's original grandeur, Michael W. Meister in the Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture (EITA) has offered a possible architectural format. [1]

The temple faces east and stands on a double jagati (platform), accessible via a staircase that begins with a chandrashila (half-moon) stair (Image 1). It also has elaborate pranalas (drainage chutes) decorated with images of women holding pots, along with makaras (mythical crocodile-like water creatures). The jagatis have spade-like merlons, a common motif in the region's temples (Image 2). The temples of Osian, near Jodhpur, also display a similar coping pattern in an inverted orientation. This would have been spaced with makara-shaped pranalas, pieces of which are now stored in the Chand Baori. The vedibandha (basal moldings) have localized features that add a unique character to the temple architecture. An east-facing sopanamala (series of steps) leads to the second jagati, with the chandrashila serving as the initial step (Image 3). This jagati has dvi-anga (two planes of an offset), which likely supported smaller shrines. The side facets would have had images of deities, of which only Narasimha survives on the south facet.

Image 1: The Harshatmata Temple's site plan
Image 1: The Harshatmata Temple's site plan
Image 2: Broken debris from the original temple assembled on the southeast face of the adhisthana (elevation of the first tier). U-shaped rounded stones are assembled on the parapet (their position or purpose in the original temple is unknown). Relief carvings of geometric, flora, and fauna motifs feature all around the adhisthana.
Image 2: Broken debris from the original temple assembled on the southeast face of the adhisthana (elevation of the first tier). U-shaped rounded stones are assembled on the parapet (their position or purpose in the original temple is unknown). Relief carvings of geometric, flora, and fauna motifs feature all around the adhisthana.
Image 3: The steps on the adhisthana have a chandrashila (moonstone) on the third step. Moonstone is a hemispherical stone in the shape of the moon placed at the entrance of Hindu temples and is designed like a lotus flower.
Image 3: The steps on the adhisthana have a chandrashila (moonstone) on the third step. Moonstone is a hemispherical stone in the shape of the moon placed at the entrance of Hindu temples and is designed like a lotus flower.

The mancha (dais) level has twelve surviving niches protruding from the offsets of the karna (corner wall division), which correspond to the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) and gudhamandapa (closed hall) of the temple structure. [2] These niches at the mancha level contain images depicting lovers and royals, along with a possible depiction of Kamadeva (Images 4, 5, 6, 7, 8). Devangana Desai classifies such sculptures as group III A, consisting of amorous couples in a non-coital embrace, often accompanied by attendants.[3] A staircase connects the mancha to the temple, and at the base of the staircase are small devakulikas (subsidiary shrines). Among these, only the northern structure survives and houses a Shiva linga.

Image 4: The central male figure and female figures are enjoying a musical concert in a grove. Seated on circular raised seats, the male figure assumes a lalitasana pose. The female figure leans towards the male and plays a stringed musical instrument (likely a veena). Four smaller figures surround them. A male soldier is holding a sword and shield (on the left). One musician is sitting between the seats, playing the flute (bottom). A small female attendant is whispering in the central female's ear (top right). Mangoes cling to the tree branches.
Image 4: The central male figure and female figures are enjoying a musical concert in a grove. Seated on circular raised seats, the male figure assumes a lalitasana pose. The female figure leans towards the male and plays a stringed musical instrument (likely a veena). Four smaller figures surround them. A male soldier is holding a sword and shield (on the left). One musician is sitting between the seats, playing the flute (bottom). A small female attendant is whispering in the central female's ear (top right). Mangoes cling to the tree branches.
Image 5: The central male figure is seated in a lalitasana pose on a raised seat. The central female figure is seated on his left thigh, looking towards the man with her head turned. The man is admiring the beauty of the woman, placing his left hand on her coiffure and inspecting her face with his left hand (missing). Chauri dharini (fly whisk bearers) stand on either side of the couple, looking towards them. A small female figure features at the right bottom, likely an attendant or servant.
Image 5: The central male figure is seated in a lalitasana pose on a raised seat. The central female figure is seated on his left thigh, looking towards the man with her head turned. The man is admiring the beauty of the woman, placing his left hand on her coiffure and inspecting her face with his left hand (missing). Chauri dharini (fly whisk bearers) stand on either side of the couple, looking towards them. A small female figure features at the right bottom, likely an attendant or servant.
Image 6: The central male figure sits in a lalitasana pose on a raised throne, while the central female figure assumes a padmasana pose. The man is facing the woman, caressing her chin with his left hand and holding a flower in his right hand. The female has her right hand placed over the man’s right shoulder, and her left hand rests upon the head of a female attendant seated on the ground. The man is resting his right foot on a lotus next to a flute-playing musician (bottom left). On the left, there are three more attendants, the largest of whom is holding a fan.
Image 6: The central male figure sits in a lalitasana pose on a raised throne, while the central female figure assumes a padmasana pose. The man is facing the woman, caressing her chin with his left hand and holding a flower in his right hand. The female has her right hand placed over the man’s right shoulder, and her left hand rests upon the head of a female attendant seated on the ground. The man is resting his right foot on a lotus next to a flute-playing musician (bottom left). On the left, there are three more attendants, the largest of whom is holding a fan.
Image 7: A central male figure sits in a lalitasana pose on a raised seat, gazing towards a central female figure who is playing a stringed musical instrument on his left thigh. The female figure is also in a lalitasana pose, and her right foot is resting on a footrest. She has elevated her body slightly to the left of the man. Hence, she is looking down towards the man. Positioned below her left leg is the figure of a male attendant. With his right hand, the central male figure forcefully pulls a female attendant (holding a hand fan) towards him.
Image 7: A central male figure sits in a lalitasana pose on a raised seat, gazing towards a central female figure who is playing a stringed musical instrument on his left thigh. The female figure is also in a lalitasana pose, and her right foot is resting on a footrest. She has elevated her body slightly to the left of the man. Hence, she is looking down towards the man. Positioned below her left leg is the figure of a male attendant. With his right hand, the central male figure forcefully pulls a female attendant (holding a hand fan) towards him.
Image 8: The central male figure sits on a circular raised seat in a lalitasana pose, firing an arrow from a bow. Standing on his left are two female figures (faces defaced), looking towards him. The female on his immediate left is holding a flower in her right hand. The female to his far left is holding a floral scroll. The female figure on his right has sustained damage. A bunch of mangoes hang above them. Mangoes are symbols of kama, or sexual desire; this may be a depiction of Kamadeva (the Hindu god of erotic love, pleasure, and desire), and the females may be apsaras (celestial nymphs) or his consort, Goddess Rati.
Image 8: The central male figure sits on a circular raised seat in a lalitasana pose, firing an arrow from a bow. Standing on his left are two female figures (faces defaced), looking towards him. The female on his immediate left is holding a flower in her right hand. The female to his far left is holding a floral scroll. The female figure on his right has sustained damage. A bunch of mangoes hang above them. Mangoes are symbols of kama, or sexual desire; this may be a depiction of Kamadeva (the Hindu god of erotic love, pleasure, and desire), and the females may be apsaras (celestial nymphs) or his consort, Goddess Rati.

The temple structure sits above the mancha level. The garbhagriha is tri-anga (three planes of offsets) and pancha-ratha (with five offsets from kona to kona on a given side) in plan. The sanctum’s walls are thick to support an early form of anekandaka (multi-spired) superstructure, of which only architectural fragments survive. The construction of the temple followed the sandhara (temple with inner ambulatory passage) format. The structure also had kakshasanas (seat-back) with railings that would have been decorated with the elephant heads currently kept at the Chand Baori enclosure. Today, the garbhagriha has a reconstructed dome at the top and currently houses a white marble idol of Harshatmata or Harsiddhimata (Image 9). The sanctum's door jambs have not survived, but architectural fragments show a tri-shakha (three jams) door frame with an inner patravalli (foliage pattern), nagapasha (intertwined serpents), and rupashakha (figural representation). It is similar to the lintel present at the National Museum in Delhi.

Image 9: Standing in the samabhanga pose, a four-armed female deity holds a mace, conch, flower, and chakra. She is venerated in the sanctum for daily worship.
Image 9: Standing in the samabhanga pose, a four-armed female deity holds a mace, conch, flower, and chakra. She is venerated in the sanctum for daily worship.
Image 10: Standing male deity in the samabhanga pose adorned with a mukuta (headgear), meshed armour, uttariya (stole or scarf-like garment), and boots. In both hands, he holds lotuses in full bloom. Broken figures of Danda and Pingala are present on either side of the legs.
Image 10: Standing male deity in the samabhanga pose adorned with a mukuta (headgear), meshed armour, uttariya (stole or scarf-like garment), and boots. In both hands, he holds lotuses in full bloom. Broken figures of Danda and Pingala are present on either side of the legs.

A gudhamandapa precedes the sanctum, retaining some surviving pillars and pillar bases. This gudhamandapa, also square in shape, shares the same interior dimensions as the garbhagriha. However, it appears larger in dimension due to the projecting pratirathas (wall offset flanking central offset). The ASI constructed a dome, and four of the pillars remain intact. There would also have been an antarala (vestibule), of which only pillars exist today. Meister suggests that the temple may have originally featured another pair of chatushkis (porches on four pillars/pilasters) to support a large receding central ceiling, comparable to that present at the Harshanatha Temple at Sikar. He further highlights that the temple’s ‘openness’ would have been a structural flaw, as it would not have adequately supported the anekandaka shikhara (multispired superstructure). [4] Unlike the superstructure that would have adorned the sanctum, architectural remains such as a ghanta (crowning bell member of a samvarana or phamsana roof) point towards the presence of a phamsana (tiered pyramidal-shaped) roof for the gudhamandapa. Loose shurasenas (antefix above the roof) with images of Shiva and Durga in red sandstones also hint at the elaborate nature of the superstructure. Meister suggests that they could have served as shukanasa frontons, located above the roof of the kapili or connecting walls. The gudhamandapa has a rupakantha (recess carved with figures on the ceiling) adorned with various sculptures depicting myriad scenes of Krishna lila (playful activities of Krishna), as well as panels of musicians, dancers, and other reliefs of a more generic subject. The ceiling also has images of Surya, Narasimha, and Varaha (Images 10, 11, and 12). Additionally, scenes showing devotees worshipping the linga, as well as depictions of Natesha, Shiva, and Parvati, and other Shaiva themes, are present.

Image 11: The male deity, depicted with a lion's face, is four-armed. He holds a disc in his upper left hand and makes an abhaya mudra (hand gesture of assurance and protection) with his upper right hand. The deity's flexed knee engages the lower hands in tearing apart the demon.
Image 11: The male deity, depicted with a lion's face, is four-armed. He holds a disc in his upper left hand and makes an abhaya mudra (hand gesture of assurance and protection) with his upper right hand. The deity's flexed knee engages the lower hands in tearing apart the demon.
Image 12: A four-armed male deity firmly stands, placing his right leg on the ground and his left leg over nagas. A vanamala, a garland of forest flowers, adorns him, and a small dagger rests in his waist. On the right, there is a female attendant in a tribhanga pose, holding a flower. The sculpture is badly damaged.
Image 12: A four-armed male deity firmly stands, placing his right leg on the ground and his left leg over nagas. A vanamala, a garland of forest flowers, adorns him, and a small dagger rests in his waist. On the right, there is a female attendant in a tribhanga pose, holding a flower. The sculpture is badly damaged.

The vedibandha mouldings of the main structure house the majority of the in situ sculptures. Only four sculptures are present on the jangha (wall). The vedibandha's niches feature seated figures on the karnas and standing figures on the pratirathas. Indra is situated in a small niche on the eastern wall's southern pratiratha, adjacent to the sanctum entrance (Image 13). An image of acharya (preceptor) in high relief is present on the southern karna (Image 14), accompanied by Shiva Gauri and musicians on the northern karna of the eastern wall (Image 15). On the vedibandha mouldings, the musicians sit in a niche alongside the damaged Shiva Gauri on the jangha. On the northern wall, the bhadra (central projection on the wall, often in cardinal directions) displays Samkarshana Balarama, accompanied by nagas (serpents) on the vedibandha. The karnas of this wall present a dancer and musician in the northern niche, along with a musician in the eastern niche. The eastern karna features a surasundari (heavenly damsel; apsara) on its jangha, a figure that would have otherwise appeared on the pratiratha offset (Figure 16). Only the eastern pratiratha, which flanks Samkarshana on the northern wall, has in situ sculptures on the jangha and vedibandha. The jangha has a highly damaged male musician standing next to an elaborate chandrashila, along with a nayika (female dancer) holding a flower separated by a small bhadraka pillar (square pillar-type with central projection on plan and in elevation). The vedibandha displays a musician. The image of Pradyumna is displayed in the bhadra niche on the western wall's vedibandha (Image 17). The presence of makara beneath the deity's feet led EITA to identify the sculpture as Varuna, but now it aligns with Cynthia Packert Atherton's identification as Pradyumna. [5] The northern karna and pratiratha niches on the western wall have mithuna (amorous couples). On this wall, there is a damaged, unidentified male seated on the southern karna niche. The bhadra niche on the vedibandha of the southern wall contains a seated image of Aniruddha (Image 18). Together, all three sculptures on the bhadras clearly point to the temple's worship of Vaikuntha Vishnu. On the western karna niche of the southern wall, there is a seated image of a female musician. The eastern karna niche features a standing figure of Agni on the jangha and a seated image of Shiva on the vedibandha.

Image 13: This panel may be a depiction of Lord Indra, who is king of the devas (celestial beings) and ruler of the swarga (heavenly realm). As the dikpala (guardian of directions) of the east, Indra faces eastward in this panel. The central figure is a crowned male standing in samapada mudra (feet equally balanced) and carrying a vajra (thunderbolt). An elephant is standing behind (its head visible on the left), which could be the white elephant Airavata, the mount of Lord Indra.
Image 13: This panel may be a depiction of Lord Indra, who is king of the devas (celestial beings) and ruler of the swarga (heavenly realm). As the dikpala (guardian of directions) of the east, Indra faces eastward in this panel. The central figure is a crowned male standing in samapada mudra (feet equally balanced) and carrying a vajra (thunderbolt). An elephant is standing behind (its head visible on the left), which could be the white elephant Airavata, the mount of Lord Indra.
Image 14: This panel depicts a male figure seated in the udichya mudra (cross-legged position). The panel depicts a central male figure seated on a raised asana in the udichya mudra (cross-legged position). A pair of footwear rests at the bottom of his asana. On either side, two female attendants are present, standing in front of trees in the background.
Image 14: This panel depicts a male figure seated in the udichya mudra (cross-legged position). The panel depicts a central male figure seated on a raised asana in the udichya mudra (cross-legged position). A pair of footwear rests at the bottom of his asana. On either side, two female attendants are present, standing in front of trees in the background.
Image 15: A four-armed male stands in a tribhanga posture with a female. His right hand holds a trident, while his lower left hand rests around the consort's waist. The remaining hands are broken. The body has a fluid and slender shape, and its clothing is diaphanous.
Image 15: A four-armed male stands in a tribhanga posture with a female. His right hand holds a trident, while his lower left hand rests around the consort's waist. The remaining hands are broken. The body has a fluid and slender shape, and its clothing is diaphanous.
Image 16: The female figure may be an apsara (celestial nymph) or surasundari (young girl as a symbol of graceful beauty) standing in the tribhanga pose (triple-bend). She has a darpana (mirror) in her left hand, and the free end of a dupatta-like garment wrapped around her arms, back, and shoulder in her right hand. Despite the severe damage to her face, the headgear and hoop earrings remain visible. Among the various ornaments she is wearing are a pendant hanging from the navel and two leaf-shaped pendants hanging from chains attached to the katibandha (decorative belt) around her waist.
Image 16: The female figure may be an apsara (celestial nymph) or surasundari (young girl as a symbol of graceful beauty) standing in the tribhanga pose (triple-bend). She has a darpana (mirror) in her left hand, and the free end of a dupatta-like garment wrapped around her arms, back, and shoulder in her right hand. Despite the severe damage to her face, the headgear and hoop earrings remain visible. Among the various ornaments she is wearing are a pendant hanging from the navel and two leaf-shaped pendants hanging from chains attached to the katibandha (decorative belt) around her waist.
Image 17: This panel depicts Varuna, a Vedic deity. Varuna is both the god of oceans and a dikpala (guardian of directions). Since Varuna is the guardian of the west, the west face of the adhisthana features his image. On the mythical sea creature known as Makara, Varuna sits in a lalitasana posture. Varuna holds the Gandiva, a divine bow, in his left hand, which Varuna gifted to Arjuna in the Mahabharata. Four female attendants surround him. Two attendants sit on circular seats in the foreground, while two stand in the background.
Image 17: This panel depicts Varuna, a Vedic deity. Varuna is both the god of oceans and a dikpala (guardian of directions). Since Varuna is the guardian of the west, the west face of the adhisthana features his image. On the mythical sea creature known as Makara, Varuna sits in a lalitasana posture. Varuna holds the Gandiva, a divine bow, in his left hand, which Varuna gifted to Arjuna in the Mahabharata. Four female attendants surround him. Two attendants sit on circular seats in the foreground, while two stand in the background.
Image 18: This panel depicts Lord Vishnu seated on his mount Garuda. The panel depicts Lord Vishnu as chaturbahu, meaning he has four hands. He carries the gada (mace), named Kaumodaki, in his rear right hand, and the chakra (discus), named Sudarshana, in his rear left hand, while his front two hands remain broken. On the top corners, we see a pair of vidhyadharas (knowledge bearers), showering floral garlands. Two male attendants (seated) and two female attendants (standing) flank Vishnu on either side.
Image 18: This panel depicts Lord Vishnu seated on his mount Garuda. The panel depicts Lord Vishnu as chaturbahu, meaning he has four hands. He carries the gada (mace), named Kaumodaki, in his rear right hand, and the chakra (discus), named Sudarshana, in his rear left hand, while his front two hands remain broken. On the top corners, we see a pair of vidhyadharas (knowledge bearers), showering floral garlands. Two male attendants (seated) and two female attendants (standing) flank Vishnu on either side.

Satya Prakash's documentation of the temple during its reconstruction by the ASI provides valuable insight into the possible original locations of some sculptures before their relocation to the enclosure at Chand Baori. [6] He observes a mutilated image of Durga in the sanctum, smeared by ritual practices and draped to conceal the broken sections. Despite its dilapidated state, the temple continued to be a site of worship. Additionally, Prakash noted the worship of Ganesha in one of the devakulikas. Given the survival of only one of the two subsidiary shrines, it is likely that the Shiva linga in this shrine dates to a later period, potentially beyond the 1960s. An image of Ardhanarishvara was found within the mandapa (pillared hall), while the images on the exterior walls were in situ. Another sculpture that deserves closer attention is that of Kartikeya, kept in the enclosure (Image 19). The sculpture features three faces, with a male figure wearing a crown on the right and an animal, possibly a lion, on the left. R.C. Agrawala mentions a niche panel portraying a standing Vishnu and consort, flanked by a male and female devotee, respectively, on either side. This niche-panel was housed in a principal niche outside the main shrine [7].

Image 19: A broken image of a two-armed male deity with three heads and faces. The central principal head wears a kakapaksha (a hairstyle with two side locks and a clearly visible middle section), while the others have small mukutas. He is adorned in a vanamala. The right leg displays a Vahana peacock. The halo is made up of lotus petals surrounded by pearls.
Image 19: A broken image of a two-armed male deity with three heads and faces. The central principal head wears a kakapaksha (a hairstyle with two side locks and a clearly visible middle section), while the others have small mukutas. He is adorned in a vanamala. The right leg displays a Vahana peacock. The halo is made up of lotus petals surrounded by pearls.

Among the loose sculptures at the site, several miniature structures aid in the imagination of the temple’s anekandaka shikhara, despite not revealing the composition of the jangha level. These must have been decorated with the large chandrashalas (decorative motif dormer-window) of red sandstone, which are currently present in the enclosure around the stepwell, Chand Baori. Fragments of door frames, lintels, and pillars are also present. The National Museum houses a door lintel that depicts Shiva and Parvati, showcasing exquisite tri-shakha jams. The Hawa Mahal sculptural gallery in Jaipur houses another panel that depicts musicians and dancers, with Kubera and Durga in the right and left sections, respectively.

The artistry found at Harshatmata Temple and Chand Baori has a post-Gupta influence. Despite significant damage to many sculptures at the site, the devastation does not obscure their exquisite and intricate style. The sculptures' unique ornamentation, such as the lalantika (belt chain with leaf-like objects dangling at the end), anklets, and the triangular draping of garments (Image 20), are notable features of the region's artistry.

Image 20: A female attendant stands with her legs crossed. Her left hand is on her waist, while her right holds a fly-whisk. She has an elaborate hairstyle. The girdle that surrounds her waist has a hanging detail. A fine chain links it, and a leaf-like ornament hangs from it. This ornament, known as the lalantika, is recognised as an iconographic feature at the Harshatmata Temple.
Image 20: A female attendant stands with her legs crossed. Her left hand is on her waist, while her right holds a fly-whisk. She has an elaborate hairstyle. The girdle that surrounds her waist has a hanging detail. A fine chain links it, and a leaf-like ornament hangs from it. This ornament, known as the lalantika, is recognised as an iconographic feature at the Harshatmata Temple.

Footnotes:

[1] Meister, Cāhamānas of Śākambharī. vol. 2, 222–245.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Desai, Erotic Sculpture of India, 71–72.

[4] Meister. Cāhamānas of Śākambharī. vol. 2, 222–245.

[5] Meister, Cāhamānas of Śākambharī. vol. 2, 235.

[6] Satya Prakash, As Stones Speak: Abhaneri.

[7] Agrawala, ‘Sculptures from Ābānerī Rajasthan,’ 134. While the accession number of the sculpture (AB/10/150) is known, the sculpture or its image could not be traced.

Bibliography:

Meister, Michael. Cāhamānas of Śākambharī: Phase I. Vol. 2 Part 2 of Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture: North India; Period of Early Maturity. AD 700 to 900, edited by M. A. Dhaky and Michael W Meister. AIIS, 1991.

Desai, Devangana. Erotic Sculpture of India: A Socio-Cultural Study. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Publishing, 1975.

Agrawala, R.C. ‘Sculptures from Ābānerī Rajasthan’ in Lalit Kalā 1-2. 1955-56.

Prakash, Satya. As Stones Speak: Abhaneri. Rajasthan: Archaeology and Museums, 1960.